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149 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is any structure specialized to detect a stimulus? |
Sensory receptor |
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What are the two types of sensory receptors? |
1. Simple (heat and pain) 2. Sense organs |
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What is a structure composed of nervous tissue along with other tissues that enhance its response to a certain type of stimulus? |
Sense organ |
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What are the three types of accessory tissues that may be involved in a sense organ? |
1. Epithelial 2. Muscular 3. Connective |
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What is the conversion of one form of energy to another energy into nerve signals via sensory receptors? |
Transduction |
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What is the term for the small local electrical change resulting from the initial effect of a stimulus on a sensory cell? |
Receptor potential |
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What occurs when sensory signals reach the brain a cause a subjective awareness of the stimulus; some never reach the brain though? |
Sensation |
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T/F: Most sensory signals delivered to the CNS produce no conscious sensation. |
True: They are filtered out in the brainstem. |
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What are the four kinds of information that sensory receptors transmit? |
1. Modality 2. Location 3. Intensity 4. Duration |
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What type of information refers to the type of stimulus or sensation it produces; vision, hearing, and taste? |
Modality |
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What is the term used for the theory of sensory interpretation that each nerve pathway from sensory cells to the brain is labeled to identify its origin? |
Labeled line code |
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What type of information is encoded by which nerve fibers are issuing signals to the brain? |
Location |
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What is the ability of the brain to identify the site of stimulation, including very small and specific areas within a receptor? |
Sensory projection |
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What are pathways followed by sensory signals to their ultimate destinations in the CNS called? |
Projection pathways |
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What type of information refers to whether a sound is loud or soft, a light is bright or dim, and a pain is mild or excruciating? |
Intensity |
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What are the three ways intensity is measured? |
1. Stimulus intensity ^ Firing frequencies ^ 2. Intense stimuli recruit more neurons to fire 3. Weak stimuli activate only sensitive nerve fibers and strong stimuli active less sensitive nerve fibers |
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What type of information is encoded by changes in the firing frequency of a nerve fiber with the passage of time; how long a stimulus lasts? |
Duration |
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T/F: Not all receptors exhibit sensory adaptation. |
False: They all do. |
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What is the term used to describe if a stimulus is prolonged, the firing of the neuron gets slower over time, and we become less aware of the stimulus? |
Sensory adaptation |
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What are the two types of receptors that are classified according to how quickly they adapt? |
1. Phasic receptors 2. Tonic receptors |
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What type of receptor generates a burst of action potentials when first stimulated, then quickly adapt and sharply reduce or stop signaling even if the stimulus continues; smell and hair movement? |
Phasic receptors |
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What type of receptor adapts more slowly and generates nerve signals more steadily; proprioceptors? |
Tonic receptors |
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What are sensory dendrites that are not wrapped in connective tissue? |
Unencapsulated nerve endings |
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What are the three types of unencapsulated nerve endings? |
1. Free nerve endings 2. Tactile discs 3. Hair receptors |
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What are bare dendrites that have no special association with specific accessory cells or tissues, and are most abundant in skin and mucous membranes; warm receptors, cold receptors, and nociceptors? |
Free nerve endings |
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What are tonic receptors that are flattened nerve endings that terminate adjacent to specialized tactile cells in the basal layer of the epidermis; light touch, senses textures, edges, and shapes? |
Tactile discs |
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What monitor the movement of hairs and consist of a few dendrites entwined around the base of a hair follicle; respond to light touch and adapt quickly? |
Hair receptors |
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What are nerve fibers wrapped in glial cells or connective tissue; mechanoreceptors for touch, pressure, and stretch? |
Encapsulated nerve endings |
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What are the four types of encapsulated nerve endings? |
1. Tactile corpuscles 2. End bulbs 3. Lamellar corpuscles 4. Bulbous corpuscles |
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What type of encapsulated nerve ending are phasic receptors for light touch and texture; papillae of skin? |
Tactile corpuscles |
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What type of encapsulated nerve ending are phasic receptors for light touch and texture; mucous membranes of lips and tongue? |
End bulbs |
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What type of encapsulated nerve ending are phasic receptors for deep pressure, stretch, tickle, and vibration? |
Lamellar corpuscles |
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What type of encapsulated nerve ending are tonic receptors for heavy touch, pressure, stretching of the skin, and joint movements? |
Bulbous corpuscles |
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T/F: First order fibers for touch, pressure, and proprioception are large, myelinated, and fast. |
True |
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T/F: First order fibers for heat and cold are small, unmyelinated, and slow. |
True |
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T/F: Nociceptors are found in all organs. |
False: They are not found in the brain and liver. |
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What is a feeling of sharp, localized, stabbing pain perceived at the time of injury? |
Fast pain |
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What is a longer lasting, dull, and diffuse feeling of pain? |
Slow pain |
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What type of pain comes from the skin, muscles, and joints? |
Somatic pain |
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What type of pain comes from the viscera? |
Visceral pain |
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What is the most potent pain stimulus known; hurts intensely when injected under the skin? |
Bradykinin |
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What are the four cranial nerves that pain signals travel through from the head to the brainstem? |
1. Trigeminal 2. Facial 3. Glossopharyngeal 4. Vagus |
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Where do the first order neurons synapse when pain travels from the head to the brainstem? |
Medulla |
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Where do the second order neurons synapse when pain travels from the head to the brainstem? |
Thalamus |
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What are the three tracts that pain travels from the neck down by? |
1. Spinothalamic 2. Spinoreticular 3. Gracile fasciculus |
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Which tract makes us conscious of somatic pain? |
Spinothalamic |
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Which tract activates visceral, emotional, and behavioral reactions to pain? |
Spinoreticular |
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Which tract carries signals for visceral pain; stomachache or kidney stones? |
Gracile fasciculus |
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Where do the third order neurons synapse when pain travels from the head to the brainstem? |
Postcentral gyrus of the cerebrum |
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What are the three neuromodulators that can block the transmission of pain signals and produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure? |
1. Enkephalins 2. Endorphins 3. Dynorphins |
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What is the term for the mechanisms that stop pain signals at the posterior horn of the spinal cord? |
Spinal gating |
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What are the two mechanisms for spinal gating? |
1. Descending analgesic fibers 2. Massaging wounded area |
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What are the four avenues of communication from cell to cell? |
1. Gap junctions 2. Neurotransmitters 3. Paracrines 4. Hormones |
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What join single unit smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, epithelial, and other cells together; pass nutrients, electrolytes, and signaling molecules? |
Gap junctions |
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What are released by neurons, diffuse across a synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors on the surface of the next cell? |
Neurotransmitters |
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What are secreted by one cell, diffuse to nearby cells in the same tissue, and stimulate their physiology? |
Paracrines |
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What are chemical messengers that are transported by the bloodstream and stimulate physiological responses in cells of another tissue or organ? |
Hormones |
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What body system consists of glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones? |
Endocrine system |
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What is the study of the endocrine system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders? |
Endocrinology |
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What type of glands secrete their products by way of a duct onto an epithelial surface? |
Exocrine glands |
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What type of glands are ductless and release their secretions into the bloodstream? |
Endocrine glands |
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What type of blood capillary is found in the endocrine glands that have patches of large pores in their walls allowing for easy uptake of matter from the gland tissue? |
Fenestrated capillaries |
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What four chemicals function as both neurotransmitters and hormones? |
1. Norepinephrine 2. Dopamine 3. Thyrotropin 4. Antidiuretic |
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What is the name for neurons that release their secretions into the blood stream; oxytocin and epinephrine? |
Neuroendocrine cells |
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What triggers hormone secretion? |
Neurons |
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What stimulate or inhibit neurons? |
Hormones |
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T/F: When hormones enter the bloodstream, they go wherever the blood goes; they have no way to go to a specific organ. |
True: Only certain target cells or target organs respond to them if they have specific receptors that respond to the hormone. |
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What are the two parts of the pituitary gland? |
1. Adenohypophysis 2. Neurohypophysis |
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Since the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) has no nervous connection, it is linked by a complex of blood vessels called? |
Hypophyseal portal system |
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Where are hormones made and released when it involves the anterior pituitary? |
They are made AND released via the anterior pituitary |
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Where are hormones made and released when it involves the posterior pituitary? |
They are made in the hypothalamus and released via the posterior pituitary |
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What are the four releasing hormones found in the hypothalamus? |
1. Thyrotropin 2. Corticotropin 3. Gonadotropin 4. Growth hormone |
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What are the two inhibiting hormones found in the hypothalamus? |
1. Prolactin 2. Somatostatin |
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What are the two hormones that are stored and released by the posterior pituitary? |
1. Oxytocin 2. Antidiuretic hormone |
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What are the six hormones that are synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary? |
1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH) 3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 5. Prolactin (PRL) 6. Growth hormone (GH) |
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What hormone from the hypothalamus secretes FSH? |
Gonadotropin (RH) |
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What is the function of FSH in women? |
Stimulates the secretion of the ovarian sex hormones and develops the follicle that contains the egg |
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What is the function of FSH in men? |
Stimulates sperm production |
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What hormone from the hypothalamus secretes LH? |
Gonadotropin (RH) |
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What is the function of LH in women? |
Stimulates ovulation and the secretion of progesterone |
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What is the function of LH in men? |
Stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone |
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What hormone from the hypothalamus secretes TSH? |
Thyrotropin (RH) |
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What is the function of TSH? |
Stimulates the growth of the thyroid gland and the secretion of the thyroid hormone |
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What hormone from the hypothalamus secretes ACTH? |
Corticotropin (RH) |
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What is the function of ACTH? |
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones (glucocorticoids) that regulate glucose, protein, and fat metabolism, and is important in the body's response to stress |
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What hormone in the hypothalamus secretes PRL? |
Prolactin (IH) |
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What is the function of PRL in women? |
Stimulates the secretion of lactation (milk production) only after a women has given birth |
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What hormone in the hypothalamus secretes GH? |
Somatotropin (RH/IH) |
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What is the function of GH? |
Stimulates mitosis and cellular differentiation, promoting tissue growth throughout the body |
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What are the five major organs of the endocrine system? |
1. Heart 2. Skin 3. Liver 4. Kidney 5. Fat |
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What are the three hormone chemical classes? |
1. Steroids 2. Monoamines 3. Peptides |
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What hormone chemical class comes from cholesterol, and since they are a lipid have to bind to a transport protein to get through any liquid or plasma? |
Steroids |
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What are the two types of steroids? |
1. Sex steroids (estrogen/testosterone) 2. Corticosteroids (cortisol) |
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Where is the majority of a steroid's activity done? |
In the cell, because they can move easily through the phospholipid bilayer |
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What hormone chemical class are modified amino acids made up of catecholamines? |
Monamines |
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What modified amino acid is a building block for the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormone? |
Tyrosine |
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What modified amino acid is a building block for the neurotransmitter melatonin? |
Tryptophan |
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What hormone chemical class is a chain of amino acids that is found in the anterior and posterior pituitary, and synthesizes insulin? |
Peptides and glycoproteins |
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T/F: Most monoamines and peptides are hydrophobic. |
F: They are hydrophilic so they interact well with blood plasma (water loving) |
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T/F: Steroids have a longer half life. |
T: Only bound ones because they bind to transport proteins (albumins and globulins) and are synthesized by the liver. |
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What is the only way for a steroid to get its hormone into the bloodstream? |
It has to unbind |
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What is the term for the time required for 50% of the hormone to be cleared from the blood? |
Half life |
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During fetal development what does the neurohypophysis become? |
Posterior pituitary gland |
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During fetal development what does the hypophyseal plate become? |
Anterior pituitary gland |
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What is found at the posterior end of the corpus callosum and shrinks by about 75% at puberty? |
Pineal gland |
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What hormone does the pineal gland secrete? |
Melatonin |
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What is the function of melatonin? |
Regulates the 24 hour circadian rhythm |
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What gland plays a role in endocrine, lymphatic, and immune responses, and is very large in children, shrinking in size in adults? |
Thymus |
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What does the thymus produce? |
Mature T cells |
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What are the three hormones found in the thymus that stimulate T lymphocyte development? |
1. Thymopoietin 2. Thymosin 3. Thymulin |
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What is the largest endocrine gland in adults and consists of two lobes? |
Thyroid gland |
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What separates the two lobes of the thyroid gland? |
Isthmus |
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What hormones do the follicular cells of the thyroid gland secrete? |
T3 and T4 |
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What does the "T" and the number represent for the T3 and T4 hormones of the thyroid gland? |
T stands for thyroxine. The number stands for the number of iodine atoms. |
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Which thyroid hormone, T3 or T4, is the main secreter but has little effects on the target cells, therefore after the target cells absorb it converts it to the other more active form, which is what? |
T4 T3 |
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What type of effect does the thyroid hormone have because it increases heat production? |
Calorigenic effect |
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What hormone do the parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid gland produce? |
Calcitonin |
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What is the function of calcitonin? |
Reduces the blood calcium level |
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What does calcitonin stimulate, which promotes calcium deposition and bone formation (important in children but not adults)? |
Osteoblast activity |
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What gland is found on the posterior side of the thyroid gland? |
Parathyroid glands |
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What hormone do the parathyroid glands secrete in response to hypocalcemia? |
Parathyroid hormone |
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What is the function of parathyroid hormone? |
Increases blood calcium levels |
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What type of activity does the parathyroid hormone stimulate? |
Osteoclast activity |
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What type of tissue makes up the adrenal cortex? |
Endocrine tissue |
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What type of tissue makes up the adrenal medulla? |
Nervous tissue |
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What is a neuroendocrine cells found in the adrenal medulla that is a sympathetic postganglionic neuron but releases its products into the bloodstream like an endocrine gland? |
Chromaffin cells |
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What are the three hormones released from the adrenal medulla? |
1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine 3. Dopamine |
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What are the two ways the hormones of the adrenal medulla boost glucose levels? |
1. Glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose) 2. Gluconeogenesis (fats/amino acids to glucose) |
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What is one way that epinephrine inhibits the secretion of insulin so the muscles and other insulin dependent organs absorb and consume less glucose, leaving it for use by the brain? |
Glucose sparing effect |
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What are the three categories of the corticosteroids found in the adrenal cortex? |
1. Mineralocorticoids 2. Glucocorticoids 3. Sex steriods |
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Which corticosteroid category regulates the body's electrolyte balance? |
Mineralocorticoids |
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Which corticosteroid category regulates the metabolism of glucose and other organic fuels? |
Glucocorticoids |
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Which corticosteroid category has various developmental and reproductive functions? |
Sex steroids |
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What is the name for the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex and what mineralocorticoid does it produce? |
Zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone |
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What is the name for the middle layer of the adrenal cortex and what glucocorticoid does it produce? |
Zona fasciculate produces cortisol and corticosterone |
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What is the name for the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex and what sex steroids does it produce? |
Zona reticularis produces DHEA and estradiaol |
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What hormone in the adrenal cortex helps maintain blood volume and pressure by stimulating the kidneys to retain sodium and excrete potassium in the urine? |
Aldosterone |
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What hormone in the adrenal cortex helps the body adapt to stress and repair damaged tissues by stimulating fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis, and the release of fatty acids and glucose into the blood? |
Cortisol |
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What hormone in the adrenal cortex plays an important role in the prenatal development of the male reproductive tract? |
DHEA |
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What hormone in the adrenal cortex secretes estrogen after a woman reaches menopause and the ovaries are no longer producing it? |
Estradiol |
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What are the three types of cells pancreatic islets produce? |
1. Alpha cells (between meals) 2. Beta cells (during and after meals) 3. Delta cells |
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What hormone is secreted from the alpha cells in the pancreas? |
Glucagon |
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What is the function of glucagon? |
Increases the level of glucose in the blood |
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What hormone is secreted from the beta cells in the pancreas? |
Insulin |
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What is the function of insulin? |
Decreases the level of glucose in the blood |
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What hormone is secreted from the delta cells in the pancreas? |
Somatostatin |
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What is the function of somatostatin? |
Growth inhibiting |
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What are the five hyperglycemic hormones that the alpha cells in the pancreas release in response to low glucose levels? |
1. Glucagon 2. Epinephrine 3. Norepinephrine 4. Cortisol 5. GH |
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What hypoglycemic hormone do the alpha cells release in response to high glucose levels? |
Insulin |
