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49 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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After the Civil War, what changes happened in the food industry?
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Before there was close-to-home food production, distribution, and marketing. It was followed by the explosive growth of cities and the expansion of transportation (especially the railroad) that allowed an organized food industry that became national and eventually global.
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pg 275
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Describe the changes in the food industry brought about by the railroad.
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The railroad, and especially the refrigerated railroad car (and later refrigerated trucks and air freight), allowed unavailable fresh meat and produce to be taken to markets thousands of miles away.
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pg 275
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What is adulteration and what was its significance early on?
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The deliberate addition of inferior or cheaper material to a supposedly pure food product in order to stretch out supplies and increase profits.
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It was one of the biggest scandals of 19th-century food establishments.
pg 276 |
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What are two shocking things that happened in the 19th-century to food?
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Adulteration of food.
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The revelation that many food colors and flavorings in widespread use were poisonous. Many of these had never been tested & were being used without monitoring or regulatory controls.
pg 276 |
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What was the significance of the Pure Food & Drug Act and when was it passed?
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It was one of the first federal laws intended to protect consumers against adulteration, mislabeling of foods, and harmful ingredients in food.
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Passed in 1906.
pg 276 |
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Historically and currently, what has been the public concern for food?
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Historically it was adulteration, but it now has shifted to contaminants and additives.
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pg 276
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What are contaminants?
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Substances that are accidentally incorporated into foods, they serve no useful purpose in the finished product, and are presumed harmful unless proven otherwise.
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pg 277
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What are defect action levels, and what idea are they based on?
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Guidelines established by the FDA which specify the *maximum* limit of contamination at or above which the FDA will take legal action to remove the product from the market.
Note: even at these upper limits, it is assumed there is no danger to human health. |
Based on the idea that it's wiser to permit aesthetically unpleasant but harmless natural defects rather than pouring on more synthetic chemicals, such as pesticides.
pg 278 |
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How do pesticide residues occur in food? Are there safety regulations in place for this?
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When crops are sprayed directly, or when livestock consume pesticide-contaminated fodder (which can then affect meat, eggs, or milk).
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The FDA has established tolerance levels for all pesticides used on food crops, which represent the maximum quantity of a pesticide residue allowable on raw agricultural commodity. However, these tolerance levels are set on the basis of good agricultural practices, and not on considerations of human health.
pgs 279, 281 |
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How might children's intakes of pesticides differ from adults?
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They may consume more chemically tainted fruit in relation to their body size is different, and because of their rapid rate of growth and development, they are more vulnerable.
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Note that despite a report by the National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academy of Sciences that supports this, the National Academy of Sciences contends that current pesticide residues pose negligible health threats to the general population.
pg 282 |
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Have pesticide residues increased or decreased recently? Why?
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They are declining, due in part to the pesticide industry's shift to chemicals that break down more quickly (so they may not be present at harvest), and are more effective, so not as much has to be used.
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pg 282
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What are organic foods? Is the demand for them big?
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Organic foods require chemical-free production methods, animals cannot be fed antibiotics, cannot be genetically modified, they cannot be irradiated, and they cannot be grown in soils amended with sewage sludge.
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They represent the most rapidly growing segment of the food market.
pg 283 |
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What are people realizing and not realizing about the use of antibiotics?
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The general public and doctors are realizing the need for more judicious medical use of antibiotics due to increasing bacterial resistance.
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Few people realize that over 40% of the antibiotics manufactured in the US are used in poultry, pork, and beef production.
pg 280 |
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What is the situation in the US versus Europe in regards to the use of antibiotics?
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In Europe, they acknowledge the increasing numbers of human illnesses blamed on use of antibiotics for meat production, so the European Union has banned this practice, and the WHO supports this.
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A number of consumer organizations and some members of Congress have called for a prohibition on antibiotic use in the US farm animals, but political pressures and seeming public indifference have prevented this.
pg 281 |
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What has spurred the recent dramatic growth in food imports to the US? What are some consequences of this?
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-Lower costs of production in many developing countries.
-Growing demand by health-conscious consumers for a year-round supply of fresh fruits & vegetables |
-We have seen a sharp increase in food poisoning incidents linked to fresh produce, mostly imported from countries where standards of health and hygiene are less rigorous than those in the US.
-Fresh fruits and vegetables are seldom cooked, so this increased the risk. -Many chemicals now banned in the US and Europe are still being produced in these nations. pg 283 |
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Why are the laws regulating residues on imported produce not effective?
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-Only 2% of imported produce is sampled.
-Even if something is sampled, it takes so long to be sent to the lab and analyzed, that even if illegal residues are detected, it's usually too late to prevent consumption of the product. -Negative test results don't necessarily mean the product is free of chemical residues since many pesticides in use in other countries aren't detected by current methods. -Federal efforts to detect problems are compromised by tight budgets, an inadequate number of inspectors, an overwhelming workload, and authority complications between all the different agencies. |
pg 284
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What are additives?
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Substances intentionally added to food to modify its taste, color, texture, nutritive value, appearance, resistance to deterioration, etc.
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pg 285
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What do additives come from?
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Some are natural and some are factory made (but are chemically the same as their natural analogs).
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pg 285
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What is the significance of the use of synthetic vitamins and minerals?
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As additives in food, there has been a profound impact on public health, virtually eliminating certain deficiency diseases.
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pg 285
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What is the biggest concern among scientists (and many consumers) about food additives?
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Using a large number of chemicals for purely cosmetic purposes, many of which have been shown to be toxic, carcinogenic, or both.
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pg 286
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What does the Food Additives Amendment do?
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It's designed to prevent consumer fraud by prohibiting the use of preservatives that make foods look fresher than they really are, in addition to protecting public health.
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pg 286
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Describe the Delaney Clause in the Food Additives Amendment? Why do critics have a problem with this?
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-It prohibits the use in food of any ingredient shown to cause cancer in animals or humans.
-It also permits the EPC to approve tolerance levels for residues of carcinogenic pesticide, as long as they present a "negligible risk." |
Critics think current policy on food additives should require a higher standard of care than environmental chemicals and shouldn't be used at all if they present a health risk because everyone is exposed to chemicals in food, not only those who voluntarily assume the risk, and varying levels of susceptibility among individuals as well as synergistic effects have to be taken into account.
pgs 287-288 |
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What are most cases of illness or death due to food from?
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A number of old-fashioned food-borne diseases commonly referred to as "food poisoning."
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pg 288
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What are the two common causes of food poisoning? Give some examples
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-Natural toxins in foods
-Microbial contamination |
-Mushrooms, aflatoxin, and various marine organisms (fish, shellfish)
-Bacteria, viruses, and parasites pgs 288, 292-293, 298-299 |
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Which is the more common cause of food poisoning?
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Microbial contamination
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Note that the number of annual cases is probably under-estimated due to the fact that people misdiagnose themselves (symptoms can be confused with common illnesses like the flu), and people don't report the embarrassing symptoms.
pg 292 |
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What are public health officials most concerned with, in regards to food poisoning?
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The potential for large-scale poisoning inherent in the current trent toward more frequent eating outside the home, and the rapid growth and sheer size of the food service industry.
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pg 293
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Of the microbial contaminates, which one causes the most outbreaks? What are the symptoms of it?
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Bacteria, which can be pathogenic bacteria that are contained in the food when it's ingested, or bacterial toxins performed in the food before it was eaten.
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Diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, onset of symptoms within 1-24 hours after eating.
pg 293 |
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How are bacterial food-borne illnesses classified? Define these terms.
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They're classified as infections or intoxications.
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Infections are caused by consuming large numbers of live organisms.
Intoxications are caused by ingesting preformed bacterial toxins. pg 293 |
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What are some examples of food-borne bacterial infections?
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Salmonella, c. jejuni, e. coli, listeriosis, and vibrio vulnificus.
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pgs 293-296
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What are some examples of food-borne bacterial intoxications?
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Staphylococcus and botulism.
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pg 297
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What causes virus-contaminated food-borne illnesses?
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The viruses are of fecal origin, so it's usually poor hygienic practices on the part of the food handlers.
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Note: these foods serve as a route of transmission, a means by which virus particles can be transported from one host to another.
pg 298 |
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What are some examples of food-borne illnesses of viral origin?
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Noroviruses and hepatitis A.
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pg 299
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What causes food-borne illnesses from parasites? What are some examples of the parasites?
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Typically ingestions of sewage-contaminated drinking water and faulty hand-washing practices.
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Tapeworm and roundworm
pg 299 |
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What are prions?
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Infectious proteins that cause several fatal nervous system disorders in both animals and humans (called BSE).
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Note: BSE is thought to have originated as a species jump when infect sheep offal was rendered into cattle feed.
Symptoms are not manifested until years after eating the meat. pg 289 |
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How can you avoid BSE (Mad Cow Disease)?
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Eat meat cuts that are least likely to be contaminated, and use meat, milk, and dairy products that are organically raised, since they haven't been exposed to it in their feed.
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pg 291
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What did BSE do to US regulations?
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Federal agencies and the beef industry need to reconsider livestock production methods and tighten safeguards to prevent an emerging pathogen from gaining a foothold here.
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pg 291
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Which foods are designated as "potentially hazardous foods" by the US Public Health Service? What are some examples?
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Foods that are implicated in food-poisoning outbreaks much more frequently than others. They are capable of supporting rapid and progressive growth of infectious or toxigenic microbes.
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They're usually poultry, meat, fish, dairy products, eggs, and foods that have high liquid content like cooked rice, boiled potatoes, and tofu.
pg 300 |
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What is cross-contamination?
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When one infected organ or carcass, or animal feces contaminates cutting equipment or workers' hands, and in turn bacteria is transferred to other carcasses or foods.
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pg 301
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What are some things that complicate efforts to instill a strong commitment to safe food-handling practices?
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The low pay, lack of health benefits, limited education, and minimal employment opportunities that characterize the average food service worker.
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pg 301
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What are the two tenants of an approach to preventing food-borne disease outbreaks?
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-Avoid microbial contamination of food in the first place through rigorous adherence to rules of good sanitation and hygiene.
-Maintain environment conditions that inhibit the multiplication of bacteria that may be present in small numbers within the food medium. |
pg 301
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The FDA & USDA permit producers or marketers to utilize the technology of irradiating food for what purpose?
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To control food-borne pathogens.
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pg 302
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What do supporters say about irradiated food? What about opponents?
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Supporters say that there is no residue leftover and the food itself is not radioactive, so consumers are not exposed to any radiation.
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Besides concern about radiation, some fear that relying on irradiation may tempt meat producers to become lax in maintaining high sanitary standards in processing facilities.
pg 303 |
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What is one of the most important ways to prevent outbreaks of food-borne disease?
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High standards of cleanliness and personal hygiene among those who handle or prepare food, attention to public health, cleanliness of the facility, routine sanitation of tools and equipment, safe food storage, effective dish-washing, proper waste disposal and trash storage.
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pgs 303-304
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What is the Food Code? Who developed it?
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A compilation of recommendations for state and local health departments, recommending that food service workers be held accountable for lapses in personal hygiene.
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The FDA
pg 304 |
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What is the most crucial element in determining the rate of bacterial multiplication in food?
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Temperature.
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pg 304
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What is the "danger zone" temperature range?
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-The range of temperature in which bacteria that cause most food-borne disease outbreaks most rapidly multiply.
-It's 41-140 degrees F, because temperatures above 140 will most likely kill bacteria, and temperatures below 41 will not kill them but will stop their growth. |
Note: This refers to internal temperature. Foods should be cooled rapidly so they don't sit in the danger zone for long. For thick meat roasts, etc., you should slice the meat then put in the refrigerator.
pgs 304, 307 |
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How are most meat and poultry inspected?
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Visually, however many safety experts say this is out-dated, so they are beginning to turn to HACCP.
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pg 305
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What is HACCP? Is it effective?
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The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point used as a preventive system of quality control.
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Yes, they are quite effective to help companies detect, then correct, food safety problems, but they are labor-intensive (to set up & monitor the process, and require a high degree of industry/government cooperation).
pgs 305-306 |
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What are the steps to HACCP?
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1. Analyze hazard
2. Determine critical control points (CCPs) 3. Establish critical limits or tolerances 4. Establish a monitoring system 5. Establish the corrective action to be taken 6. Establish effective record-keeping systems 7. Establish verification procedures to demonstrate that HACCP is working correctly |
pg 306
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