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258 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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anatomy
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the biology form of an organism
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physiology
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the biological function
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What is an example of how physical laws constrain evolution?
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Water is a thousand times more dense than air and much more viscous.
Therefore in order to be fast swimmers, animals have developed body plans hat are fusiform, or tapered at both ends. |
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Relate structure, function, and natural selection
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Structure determines function and natural selection can alter this relationship
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homeostatis
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the maitenance of a constant internal environment
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what is the goal of homeostasis
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to keep internal fluctuations small
this is done via homeostasis mechanisms |
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what is bad about homeostasis
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it is expensive energetically
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why is homeostasis necessary
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because many of the macromolecules of the body are delicately balanced or having a specific environment that they need to be in
an example would be enzymes. They have an ideal range where they peak in activity |
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what are the mechanisms of homeostasis
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signaling and feedback regulation
coordination and control endocrine system nervous system diffusion |
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Regulator
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organisms that have a very narrow homeostatic range
the will use internal mechanisms to regulate internal change in the face of external change an example would be salmon. They can change from salt water to freshwater without changing their internal solute concentration |
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conformer
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an animal that allows its internal conditions to conform to external changes
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Explain the example of homeostatis in regulation of calcium
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When calcium levels are high, the thyroid gland produces caclitonin which stimulates calcium uptake in the bones and reduces caclium uptake in the kidneys. this reduces blood calcium levels
When calcium levels are low, the parathyroid gland produces PTH which stimulates calcium release by the bones and calcium uptake by the kidneyes. this also increase calcium uptake in the kidneys. This raises blood levels of calcium |
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diffusion and what does it depend on
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the spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient, from a region of high concentration to low concentration
It depends on the difference in concetration the distance of diffusion the surface area it is occuring over |
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Ficks law
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R = D x A (change p/d)
R= rate of diffusion D= constant A = surface area where diffusion is occuring change in p= change in concentration from outside to inside d= distance that diffusion occurs over |
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What leads to a high diffusion rate
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lots of surface area
large change in concentration low distance that diffusion has to travel |
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what is an ideal surface area to volume ratio
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high
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what are the four types of animal tissue
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epithelium
connective muscle nervous |
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how many organ systems are there
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11
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epithelial tissue
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covers the oustide of the body and lines organs and cavities of the body
they are the gate keepers: all things that enter or exit the body must pass through epithelial tissue form: sheets of cells |
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function of epithelial tissue
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barrier/protection
secretion (crab exoskeleton) absorption (small intestine) |
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what three epithelial tissues are 1 cell thick
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simple squamous
cuboidal simple columnar |
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Simple squamous: location and function
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function: to be a thing barrier that promotes diffusion
location: circulatory system, capillary walls, alveoli of the lungs |
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Cuboidal: location and function
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function: selective secretion and absorption
locaiton: in many glands like the thyroid and pancreas and making kidney tubules |
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Simple columnar: location and functoinq
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function: secretion and absorption, ex: goblet cells that secrete muscus
location: in the gut and respiratory lining |
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stratified squamous: location and function
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function: protection
it is multiple cell layers thick location: outer skin layer and mouth |
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pseudo-stratified columnar: location and function
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Ciliated cells
function: protection and movement/secretion of mucus location: in the lining of the respiratory tract |
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general characteristics of connective tissues
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very diverse in grouping
spaced out presence of an abundant extracellular matrix |
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Is bone a dead or live tissue?
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live
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Loose connective: location, description, function
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Description: scattered cells in an amorphous protein matrix with a collagen fiber web
Function: Support, food, storage, epithelim nourishment Found: Beneath the skin and between organs |
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Fibrous connection: location, description, function
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Description: tightly packed collagen fibers --> strong
Function: provide flexibility, strong connections and protection Found: tendons, ligaments, organ converings, dermis |
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Cartilage: description, location, function
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Description: long parallel array of collagen fibers: firm and flexible
Function: provide support, shock absorption, reduction of friction Found: Joints, spine, skeleton, and cartilaginous fish |
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Bone: description, location, function
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Description: Osteocytes embedded in a collagen matrix that is hardened by calicum phosphate
location: skeleton function: support and movement |
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Blood: descriptoin, location, function
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Description: red and white blood cells suspended in a fluid plasma matrix
location: circulatory system function: gas exchanges, nutrients, waste, antibody, immunity, hormone, transport |
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Adipose tissue
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specialized loose connective tissue that is found throughout the body. It stores fat for fuel, pads and insulates organs in the body
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smooth muscle tissue: location, description, function
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It is involuntary
description: is is cell-spindle shaped and looks smooth function: gut movement and dilation/construction in found: digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels |
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skeletal muscle tissue: location, description, function
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It is a voluntary muscle tissue
description: large cells that do not change in number, they will only get larger. they have many nuclei. appearance is striated (transverse stripes) found: skeletal muscles and is used in body movement |
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Cardiac muscle tissue: location, description, function
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It is an involuntary muscle
Descriptoin: single nucleate, cells are not large, like skeltal tissue it is striated. Found in the heart and is responsible for its contraction |
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Metabolic rate: what is it, what unit is it measured with?
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energy animals use/unit time
measured in calories *NOTE: food Calorie is 1000 calories |
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Ectotherms
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have their temperature regulated by the environment
They have a low metabolic rate |
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endotherms
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do not conform to the temperature of the outside environment; it is internally regulated to be a constant temperature
have a high metabolic rate |
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digestion
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the breaking down of organic material into smaller molecules that can be used in metabolism
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what does essential mean
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the body cannot make a nutrient so it must obtain it from another source
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how many essentail amino acids are there for the human body
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8 of 20
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what are the functions of digestion
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storage
secretion breaking down food absorptin elimination |
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what are the two types of digestive systems
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gastrovacular cavity- one opening
complete digestive tract- two openings and have division of digestive labor |
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what is the largest organ in the body
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liver
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Names the organs that make up the digestive tract
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mouth
salivary glands esophagus stomach liver gal bladder pancreas small intestine large intestine anus |
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peristalisis
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alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth muscles
this allows for food movement in our body |
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sphincters
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junctions between speciliazed compartments that are made of muscle that act as drawstrings that will close off canals
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Name the things that make up the gut and elaborate on their funciton
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Mucosa: epithelium tissue that secretes mucus
Lumen: space in the gut Circular muscle and longitudinal muscle: antagonistic pair of muscles that perform peristalsis |
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What are the parts of the upper digestive tract and what is their function
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mouth: breaks up food
salivary gland: lubricates food and produces a sugar digesting enzyme esophagus: moves food to the stomach via peristalsis |
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exocrine gland
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glands that secrete their hormones into ducts
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Stomach
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stores food if you eat a lot at once
secretes HCl and protein digesting enzymes breaks up food via muscular churning |
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chyme
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mixture of digestive juice in stomach and food
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Pancreas
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located underneath the stomach and is connected to the liver, gall bladder, and small intestine
it is an exocrine gland, which is composed of invaginated epithelium (has high surface area) and a duct produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate |
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Liver
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exocrine gland that secretes bile
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bile
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salts that aid in digestion and absorption of lipids
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gall bladder
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stores bile
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Small intestine
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has a lot of surface area for greater rate of diffusion
has a lot of folding function is digestion and absorption |
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villi
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bumps in the small intestine
they contain a vein, artery, lymph duct which allow for nutrients to be easily absorbed into the blood |
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where does acidic chyme come from
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stomach
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where does bicarbonate come from what does it do?
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pancreas
neutralizes chyme |
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where are digestive enzymes made
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PANCREAS
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where are bile salts made
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liver and stored in gall bladder
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where are digestive enzymes in the small intestine found
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on microvilli
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Microvilli are found where?
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on the epithelial cells of the villi
they are exposed to the lumen of the small intestine |
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How are proteins aborbsed in the small intestine
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they are broken down into amino acids, which diffuse across the epithelial cells of the villi into the blood capillary
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how are carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine
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they are broken down into monosaccharides which diffuse across epithelial cells of the villi into the blood capillary
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emulsification and the small intestine
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fats are broken down into small components with the help of bile and they are carried into the lymph duct
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large intestine
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has a large diameter and low surface area
it concentrates waste that is not useful through water absorption |
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gastrin
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created and received by stomach *only hormone like it
tells stomach to make acids |
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CCK
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made in the small intestine
tells the gall bladder and liver to send more bil to the small intestine tells pancreas to release digestive enzymes |
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Secretin
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triggers the release of bicarbonate in pancreas
made in the small intestine |
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enterogasterone
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negative feedback
released by the small intestine to tell the stomach to stop churning |
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Explain glucose regulation
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If blood glucose levels rise then the pancreas will produce insulin with enhance the transport of glucose into the cells and stimulate the liver to take glucose and store it as glycogen. This decreases blood glucose levles
When blood glucose levels get low, the pancreas will secrete glucagon, which stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and produce glucose. This increases glucose levels |
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leptin
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a hormone produced in adipose tissue that suppresses appetite
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Cecum
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large sac at the entrance of the large intestine that is much bigger in herbavores
contains symbiotic microbes that help break down plant material to increase nutrient uptake |
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Ruminant herbavores
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have a 4 chambered stomach that contain microorgansims that aid digestion
The first chamber is anaerobic due to methane gas the ruminant will regurgitate and ruminate and chew chud which will increase the surface area and increase digestion |
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What is the largest factor that affects gas exchange in animals and how has evolution adapted to it?
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The distance by which diffusion occurs needs to be short
Natural selection has produced to "options" to overcome this barrier: 1. The body shape and size of an animal will keep all or nearly all its cells in contact with its surroundings 2. A circulatory system moves the fluid closest to the cells surroundings to the tissues of an animal where gas exchange occurs |
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What are the 3 types of gas exchange in animals
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gastrovascular
open circulatory closed circulatory |
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Gastrovacular cavities in relation to gas exchange. Give examples as well
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Animals that have gastrovascular cavities do not have a circulatory system. Most of the cells are in contact with the external environment of the animal's cells. Cells lining the cavity are ciliated to move water and receive nutrients.
Examples would be... hydras which extend their gastrovacular cavities into their tentacles flatworms which decrease the distance of diffusion by increasing their surface area through being flat in shape |
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Open circulatory system
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Found in molluscs and arthropods
interstitial fluid (fluid that surrounds cells) called hemolymph (blood like solution) that isn't as confined in vessels as it is in a closed circulatory system |
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Closed circulatory system
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confined vessels that make circulatory fluid distinct from interstitial fluid
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what are functions of the vertebrate circulatory system
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transport: gases, metabolites (broken down food), wastes
regulation: hormone and thermoregulation protection: clotting/maitenance, immunity |
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Describe blood, what is its composition?
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It is a connective tissue that is a bunch of cells suspendend in a fluid matrix called plasma
blood is 55% plasma and 45% blood cells |
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What makes up plasma?
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water
ions (for osmotic regulation) metabolites wastes hormones proteins (help with pH regulation) |
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Erythrocytes
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red blood cells
function in o2 and co2 transport contain hemoglobin for the binding of o2 don't have a nucleus in mammals but birds do |
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Leukocytes
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white blood cells
make up 1% of all cells have a nucleus function in immunity and defense |
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Platelets
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cytoplasmic fragments of cells in bone marrow
help in clotting |
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Ice fish and gas exchange
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Ice fish live in cold environments that have a lot of oxygen so they don't have hemoglobin in their red blood cells, instead oxygen happens through direct diffusion
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How is invetebrate blood different from vertebrate blood
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Hemocyanin (copper is where oxygen binds)
hemerythrin (has iron as coenzyme but it is very different than hemoglobin) Or large o2 binding proteins |
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What do all vessels have in common
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an endothelium
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endothelium
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squamous epithelium
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Capillary: characteristics, pressure, other distinguishing features
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smallest of vessels with thin walls (not containing muscle like veins and arteries)
Low in pressure Fits only 1 RBC at a time. The thin walls facilitate exchange between capillaries and interstitital fluid |
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Artery: structure, pressure, characteristics
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Structure: connective tissue that allows for strectching and recoiling, smooth muscle, endothelium
These layers are thicker than veins because arteries experience a lot of pressure from being close to the heart. Diameter is controlled by smooth muscle |
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arteries carry blood
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away from the heart
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veins carry blood
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toward the heart
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Veins: structure, pressure, charcteristics
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Structure:
connective tissue smooth muscle endothelium *Not as thick as arteries because they don't experience as much pressure Has highly expandable valves to control velocity |
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Sphincter muscles and capillaries
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sphincter muscles, which are smooth muscle tissue, regulate blood flow into the capillaries which helps in blood pressure and thermoregulation
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Which vessel has the greatest surface area
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capillaries
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Which vessel has the greatest velocity
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arteries
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which vessel has the slowest velocity and why is it a good thing
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capillaries
It is a good thing because it allows for exchange of gas, metabolites, and wastes between the blood and interstitial fluid |
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Which vessel experiences the greatest pressure
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arteries
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systolic and diastolic pressure
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systolic-when the heart contracts and forces blood out, which increases pressure in the arteries
diastolic pressure- when the heart relaxes and fills with blood |
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Lymphatic system: what is it, what is its purpose, how does it do it
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Network of vessels that coincide near capillaries that help to return lost fluid and proteins to the blood
It is a "blind sac" or is 1 directional. It dumps lymph (fluid that contains stuff taken in from the interstitial fluid) and puts it into veins via osmosis |
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Why is the lymphatic system needed?
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Fluid is lost by capillaries into the interstitial fluid because the high pressure of the arteries forces some of it out of the capillaries
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how many heart chambers do fish have
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2
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how many heart chambers do amphibians and reptiles have
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3
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how many heart chambers do mammals and birds have
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4
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atrium
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collects blood from veins
receives blood |
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ventricle
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muscular pumping chamber of the heart
makes blood leave |
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Explain double circulation
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two circuits within one organ
Pulmonary circuit- occurs on the right side of the heart and delivers o2 poor blood to gas exchange tissues Systemic circuit- once the blood is enriched w/ o2 it leaves the gas exchange tissues and enters into the left pump. the heart contracts and then distributes the o2 enriched blood throughout the body |
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Explain mammalian circulation
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The right ventricle will pump oxygen depleted blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where oxygen will be loading into the blood and carbon dioxide will be unloaded.
The blood will leave the lungs and enter the heart through the left atrium. Then it will enter the left ventricle where it will be pumped out into the body through the aorta. The aorta will lead to arteries and arteries to capillaries. At capillaries the oxygen will be unloaded and the co2 will be loaded into the blood. Capillaries will then flow into veins. The veins will then merge at the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava and dump the oxygen poor blood into the right atrium. This blood will then be dumped into the right ventricle and the process will repeat itself. |
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Respiration
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the process of O2 uptake and CO2 unloading
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Why are gills, tracheae and lungs needed?
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because many animals don't have all their cells in close contact with their environment and therefore can't get gases to them
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Gills
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most common in aquatic animals
elaboration of the epithelia have close contact with vessels |
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Echinoderm gills and ficks law
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dermal gills that are an elaboration of the body wall, which decrease d and increase A
epithelia are ciliated which leads to a greater difference in p (the concentration gradient) |
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Fish Gill structure: bony gill arch, gill filaments, lamella,
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Bony gill arch- serves as an anchor to where blood vessels attach
gill filaments- attach to gill arch and contain vessels, they increase the surface area lamella- thin ridges between the artery and vein that contain a capillary bed |
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Operculum/ opercular cavity and buccal cavity
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Operculum is the gill cover that covers the opercular cavity which is where water exits in the fish
buccal cavity is where water and food enter the fish |
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Explain water movement and gills in fish
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When the fish opens its mouth, it creates negative pressure insides which draws water in to the buccal cavity
When the fish closes its mouth the pressure increases and the water exits across the gills and through the operculum |
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Expalin countercurrent exchange
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the exchange of fluids in opposite directions. In the case of fish it is the exchange of water and blood.
Because they flow in opposite directions, there is a partial pressure gradient that favors oxygen diffusion |
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Why don't gills work well in air and how did terrestrial animals adapt to solve the problem
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Air is a much less supportive medium than water, which will cause gills to collapse. Also, water will evaporate when exposed to air.
Terrestrial animals have adapted to the problem by enclosing respiration tissues in the body and exposing them via narrow tubes |
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Insect tracheal system
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air tubes that branch, connecting to air sacs and external openings that receive oxygen (they are regulated by spiracles that open and close).
The tracheae also connected with the surface of almost every cell in the insect's body which allow for gas exchange via diffusion (goes against the concept of a circulatory system) |
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Lung
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expandalbe internalized sacs that are supported by the body
they are not in contact with all cells and need a circulatory system in order to transfer gases Covered in a membrane to help trap dust and pollen, etc and remove it |
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How does air flow into the lungsq
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It enters through the nasal cavity down the trachea into the bronchus (branch that leads to either lung) and into bronchioles, which then lead to alveoli for gas exchange
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Alveoli
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where gas exchange occurs in the lungs
sac clusters at the end of the bronchioles have a lot of surface area connect to many capillaries and diffuse between 2 layers |
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explain mammalian breathing
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inhalation: the diaphragm contracts and the rib cage expands as the muscle contract which leads to the lungs expanding. this causes a negative pressure within the lungs which causes air to flow in
exhalation: the diaphragm, rib cage, and muscles relax which force air out of the lungs |
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explain breathing in birds
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air flows one way and goes through 2 cycles on exhalation and inhalation before leaving the body.
Is more efficient at gas exchange and doesn't mix gases Inhalation 1 fill posterior air sac Exhalation 1 fills lungs Inhalation 2 fills anterior air sac Exhalation 2 air leaves body |
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Explain oxygen gas transport in mammal lungs
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The partial pressure in the alveolus is higher than that of blood which encourages diffusion. As the blood moves to tissues, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is greater than the body tissue cells, which encourages the diffusion of oxygen into the cells.
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Explain carbon dioxide gas transport in mammal lungs
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The carbon dioxide partial pressure in the cells is greater than in the blood which causes co2 diffusion into the blood cells.
This happens 3 ways: Direct diffusion of CO2 into cell (reamins entact) CO2 diffusion and hemoglobin transport CO2 reacting with water to form carbonic acid which then forms bicarbonate which leaves the cell into the plasma (encourages more co2 uptake into cell) Then when the blood reaches the alveolus the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is greater in the blood than it is in the alvelous which causes diffusion of co2 into the alveoli |
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pathogen
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infectious agent that cause disease
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the body is constantly under attack from
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invading microbes and abnormal cells within the body
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what is the body's first barrier of defense
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an outer covering, skin, etc
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two types of immunity
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innate and acquired
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innate immunity is present in what anmals
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all animals
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innate immunity
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1st to act--rapid response
doesn't have memory activates response by recognizing foreign traits (sugars and proteins) on the outside of pathogens |
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phagocytic cells and innate immunity
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When a foreign microbe is detected the macrophage will engulf the microbe and fuse with a lysome which has digestive enzymes that will break down the microbe
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macrophage
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pathogen eaters
in relation to dr. weis's lecture, several phagocytic white blood cells are macrophages |
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where are phagocytic cells found
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in lymph nodes, speen and throughout the body
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Antimicrobial proteins and innate immunity
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They attack or slow down invaders
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Complement proteins as antimicrobial proteins
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they are antimicrobial proteins that are made by macrophages and float freely in the blood. At a signal of an invader they will assemble and "poke holes" n the membrane of the invader
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Explain inflammatory response
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It is triggered by injury or a pathogen.
Histamine, an inflammatory signal stored in the conncetive tissue, is released. This encourages blood vessels to dialate, which increases permability. Blood flow and heat will increase at the site which brings more antimicrobial proteins and phagocytic cells. |
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Pus is
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leftover "war" damage from injury
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where do blood cells originate
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from stem cells in bone marrow
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acquired immunity
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response after innate immunity
develops more slowly reacts to specific invaders and abnormal cells remembers previous infections |
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lymphocytes
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B and T cells that are white blood cells
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where are lymphocytes found
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in the blood and lymphatic tissue
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antigen
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any foreign molecule that is recognized by lymphocytes
usually large molecules like proteins and suagars |
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antigen receptors
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found on lymphocytes and serve as a place to recognize the displayed anitgens
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What is a key difference between b and t cells
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b cells can interact with an intact antigen, where it is free or on the surface of a pathogen
t cells only bind to displayed antigens |
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Expalin the process of antigen presenation and t cell recognition
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A host cell will become infected or engulf a pathogen.
Enzymes will break the host cell into smaller pieces Antigen fragments will then bind to the MHC The MHC will go to the cell surface and display the antigen (antigen presentation) Helper T cells ( or cytotoxic t cells depending on what kind of cell) will recognize the antigen which will lead too activation of the immune system |
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cytotoxic t cells
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kill infected cells
only receive antigen presentation from infected cells |
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helper t cells
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assist b cells and cytotoxic t cells
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How are B and T cells unique
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because of their specific antigen receptors
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Humoral response (general explanation)
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a form of acquired immunity which activates the clonal selection of b cells which will create antibodies
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cell mediate response (general explanation)
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a form of acquired immunity which activates the clonal selection of cytotoxic t cells
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clonal selection
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the process of a B or T cell being activated by an antigen binding to its receptor. this will lead to the cloning of that specific cell to help fight the pathogen
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two types of acquired immunity
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humoral response and cell mediated response
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effector cells
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short lived cells that help fight against a pathogen, formed in clonal selection
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memory cells
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long lived cells that carry receptors specific to an antigen that are products of clonal selection
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plasma cells
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effector B cells that secrete antibodies
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primary immune response
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occurs after the initial exposure to a pathogen and is the delayed production of antibodies
innate immunity is key to sustaining the body until the primary immune response kicks in |
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secondary immune response
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2nd encounter of a pathogen.
leads to a rapid response to the pathogen |
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Draw a diagram of humoral and cell mediate resonses
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done
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compare and contrast antibodies and active T cells
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antibodies defend against extracellular pathogens and rise from humoral response
active t cells defend against intracellular pathogens and rise from cell-mediate response |
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antibodies
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defend against extracellular pathogens by binding to antigens, which either neutralizes them or makes them better targets for pahgocytes and complement proteins
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plasma cells have a very large version of this organelle
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rough ER because they secrete a lot of proteins which become antibodies
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helper T cells are involved in
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they are involved in cell mediated and humoral responses
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how are helper t cells activated
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by antigen presenting cells
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what happens after helper t cells are activated
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they differentiate into activated h. t cells and memory h. t cells
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activated t cells
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secrete cytokines that active B and cytotoxic T cells which will lead to the clonal selection of the B and T cells
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Cytotoxic t cells are activated by
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cytokines from helper t cells
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how do cytotoxic t cells work
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they wil kill/ eliminate body cells infected by viruses and intracellular pathogens
they secrete periforin and other proteins that will rupture the cell |
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How are B cells activated
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B cells will bind w/ a pathogen by recognizing the foreign molecules on its surface. It will undergo endocytosis and do an antigen display of the foreign stuff.
Activated helper t cells will then recognize this antigen and secrete cytokines to activate the b cell |
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what types of cells are the basis for immunization
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memory cells
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osmoregulation
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the process of mantaining the balance of water and solutes in the body
process of homeostasis controlled by the movement of solutes betwen internal fluids and external environment |
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Why do animals osmoregulate
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because proteins and macromolecules have very narrow conditions that they live in
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What are examples of how osmoregulation has adapted to different challenging environments
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abatross can drink sea water
desert kangaroo mice don't have to drink any water |
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osmolarity
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the concetration of solutes in a fluid
measured in milliosmoles of solutes / L of fluid |
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isoosmotic
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equal osmolarities between two fluids
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hypoosmotic
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dilute solution of solutes compared to environment
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hyperosmotic
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more concentration of solutes in comparison to environment
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osmolyte
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similar to a solute
dissolved chemical particle can be charged or uncharged |
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osmoconformers
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change osmolarity to be the same as environment
found mainly in marine animals |
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what is a problem that osmoconformers face and how to they adapt to it?
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Osmoconformers do not have the same solutes as sea water and ionic osmolytes are destabilizing to macromolecules
Solution: In order to get an osmolarity equal to that of sea water and their ECF, osmocomformers use organic uncharged osmolytes to increase their solute concentration (thus not harming their macromolecules) |
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Explain marine invertebrates as an example of an osmoconformer
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The ECF of marine inv. are full of ionic solutes (like sea water)
In order to increase the osmolartiy inside the cells, marine inv. increase the concentration of free amino acids |
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Explain sharks as an example of an osmoconformer
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Sea water contains all ionic solutes
ECF contains a combo of ionic, organic, TMAO, and Urea solutes Inside the cell, sharks change their concentration of TMAO and Urea to be equal in osmolarity |
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TMAO
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an organic molecule that helps protect proteins from urea
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Urea
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an N waste that can be toxic to proteins in high concentration
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Osmoregulators
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organism that actively maintains its internal osmolarity despite what the external osmolarity to it is
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Explain osmoregulation in bony fish in salt water
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Problem: bony fish are hypoosmotic to sea water, which makes them lose lots of water to the environment
Solution: drink a lot of water, don't pee a lot, excrete salts across gills and in pee |
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explain osmoregulation in bony fish in fresh water
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problem: hyperosmotic to freshwater which means a lot of water will try to enter the fish
solution: don't drink a lot of water, uptake ions through the gills, and pee a lot |
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explain osmoregulation in terrestrial animals
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problem: losing water via evaporation
solution: drink a lot and reduce water loss through having internal respiratory organs, waxy exoskeltons, keratinized skin, fur, nocturnal behavior, and conserving water in exretory organs |
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What are the 3 types of nitrogenous wastes
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ammonia, urea, and uric acid
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ammonia what animals use it
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animals that have a lot of available water, so fish and invertebrates
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in what animals is urea the desired waste
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mammals sharks and amphibians
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in what animals is uric acid the desired waste product and why is it desirable
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in birds, reptiles, and insects
desirable because it can be excreted without using a lot of water |
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Ammonia: solubility, toxicity, atp to make it, N amount
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solubility: high
toxicity: high and can unfold proteins atp to make: none N amount: 1 |
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urea: solubility, toxicity, atp to make it, N amount
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solubility: high
tox: medium atp: some N: 2 |
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uric acid:
solubility, toxicity, atp to make it, N amount |
solubility: none, because it is in a solid crystalline structure
toxicity: low atp: high amount N: 4 |
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what are the 4 basic steps of excretory systesm
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filtration
reabsorption secretion excretion |
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filtration and excretory systesm
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water and solutes are forced into the excretory tubules by pressure
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reabsorption and excretory systems
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active and passive transport of valuable substances to the blood
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secretion and excretory systems
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active transport of unwanted substances (like toxins) into the excretory tubule from blood vessel
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excretion and excretory systems
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filtrate leaves the body as urine
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what animals use malpighian tubules
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insects and spiders
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malpighian tubules
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salt water and N wastes will enter tubes and then combine with feces in the gut
the gut is good at reabsorbing water |
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what are the two main areas of vertebrate kidneys
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renal cortex and renal medulla
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nephron
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the fundamental unit of a kidney. they have long tubules with a ball of capillaries called the blomerulus
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tubule tissue in kindey
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epithelium
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What is the route of flow in vertebrate kidneys
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proximal tubule --> loop of henele --> distal tubule --> collecting duct ---> renal pelvis --> out via urine
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what kind of flow occurs in the vasa recta
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counter current flow
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function of glomerus
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to filter water, salts, urea, and metabolites and actively secrete waste
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proximal tubule function
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to reabsorb and secrete water, salts and metabolites
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loop of henele function
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active and passitve reabsorption of water and NaCl
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distal tubule function
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reabsorption and secretion of water and salts
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collecting duct function
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to carry filtrate through the medulla through to the renal pelvis
reabsorption and secretion |
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kidneys and ion gradient
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In the kidneys there is an increasing gradient of osmolytes that allow for a greater delta p (change in concentration) that increases diffusion
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cephalization
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an evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior (front) end of the body
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Explain how nervous system complexity correlates to function and give an example
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The more function and complexity to an organisms life, the more complex the nervous system will have to be to coordinate activities
An example is show between chiton and squid. Chiton have simple nervous systems because they are very slow. Squids have more complex nervous systems because they move quickly and are predators |
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nerve nets
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the simplest nervous system
does not have brain ex: cnidarian |
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central nervous system
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brain and longitudinal nerve chord
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peripheral nervous system
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nerves, ganglia, and sensory cells
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neuron
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nerve cell that transfers information within the body
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nerve tissue is made up of
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neurons, schwann cells, and supportive cells
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dendrites
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highly branched part of neurons that receives signals from other neurons
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axon
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extension of the cell body of a neuron which transmits signals
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do neurons have a nucleus
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yes
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synapse
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space between cells where cell to cell communication occurs between a presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron
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myelinated
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occurs at axon
it refers to the presence of a myelin sheet that is make up of shwann cells that wrap around the axon |
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ungated vs. gated passive transport
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ungated, things can always go through
gated, regulates what goes through and open/closes in response to a stimulus 3 types of gated: stretch, ligand (chemical), voltage |
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depolarization
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when the membrane potential of a nerve cell is reduced in magnitude (it becomes negative)
this occurs during action potential |
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resting potential
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the membrane potential of a neuron that is not receiving a signal
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What is the average resting membrane potential and explain how it is maintained
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-70 mV
The negative value refers to the inside of the cell being more negative than the outside of the cell. This occurs through active transport of Na+ and K+ through the sodium potassium pump, and also passive transport through ungated channels. The sodium potassium pump maintains the concentration gradients of Na and K. Sodium will be pumped outside so it can diffuse inside and Potassium will be pumped inside so that it can diffuse outside. It is important to note the potassium channels are more open @ resting potential than the sodium channels |
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What is action potential and how does it work
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Action potential occurs when a neuron is actively receiving a signal.
A stimulus will cause the closed sodium channels to open (voltage gated ion channels) this will lead for the sodium to start diffusing into the cell via its concentration gradient. This will cause the membrane potential to increase to become (+) because at this point the potassium channels will be closed, allowing for positive charge to build up. This will cause a negative charge on the outside of the nerve cells. When the action potential is decreasing the sodium channels will close and the potassium channels will open |
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the purpose of myelinated nurves
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the myelin sheath w/ schwann cells serve as an insulator that allow axons to be small in diameter and still transmit a fast signal
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Explain how synapses work
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An action potential will arrive at the presynaptic cell via a voltage gated channel which will lead to an increase in the mebrane potential
this will cause the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and dump neurotransmitters The neurotransmitters will bind to a ligand channel which will allow the diffusion of sodium and potassium and continue the trasmission of the signal |
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what does locomotion require
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a determinate body form
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Explain the structure of a muscle
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Muscle-attaches to bones and help with movement
Muscles contain muscles bundles, which contain bundles of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers are multinucleate long cells that contain many myofibril myofibril contain myofilaments myofilaments are striated each repeating unit of striation is a sarcomere and is composed of thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin) |
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Expalin the sliding filament model
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Responsible for muscle contraction by sliding filaments, not changing length
a myosin head is activated by ATP binding and being hydrolyzed, which leads to a high energy conformation that binds to actin filaments. This binding will caused the ADP and P to fall off, changing the conformation of myosin and causing it to fall off which will move the actin |
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Explain the regulation of muscle contraction
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Muscle contraction is regulated by the presence of free calcium because it activates actin binding sites
The action potential from a synapse will travel down T tubules which will trigger the release of Ca +2 via through voltage gated channels, which will allow calcium to flow to sarcomere |
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hydrostatic skeleton
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muscles surround fluid filled cavity and will cause changes in shape to the cavity
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exoskeleton
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body with a hard case
secreted chitin |
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endoskeleton
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internal skeleton w/ lots of cell tissue
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joint
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where bones meet and are joined
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where are muscles located for locomotion in an endo/exoskeleton
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endo-muscles on outside
exo-muscles on inside |
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what are the two main physical restraints to movement
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gravity and frictional drag
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types of locomotion
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axial-whole body movement
appendicular- movement of appendages |
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explain locomotion in water
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hydrodynamic body plans are necessary
axial occurs in animals like jellyfish and squid via hydrolic propulsion, and in fish via body undulations (having a fin) appendicular occurs in animals like penguins |
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explain locomotion on land
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axial happens in animals like slugs and snails
appendicular depends upon number of appendages and gait. the faster the gait the less fricitonal drag |
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what definites movement in air
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properties of physics or lift and thrust
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gustation
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taste
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olfaction
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smell
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tastants
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chemicals that are stimuli for taste
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odorants
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chemicals that are stimuli for smell
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5 types of tastants
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sweet
sour salty bitter umami |
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how does taste reception work
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a chemical will bind to a protein on the tongue which will activate the opening of ion channels which will allow sodium to move down its concentration gradient and cause the action potential necessary to send a signal
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how smell works
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an odorant binds to a protein, which leads to the opening of ion channels, stimulating an action potential for signal to transferred
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