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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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oviraptor
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First thought to steal eggs, actually parent (dad)
(Norell et al: parent) (Varrichio: dad, too large a clutch for single female, no medullary bone |
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mom vs dad
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moms develop a lot of calcium on the mudullary bone (spongy), so that they can lay eggs (eg ostrich, emu)
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phylogeny
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The Tree of Life: study of phylo genetics, evolutionary relatedness amongst organisms
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monophyly
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group including all (and only) descendants of a single, common ancestor
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ahistoric phylogeny
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polyphyly: like all organisms with wings
paraphyly: includes all descendants of common ancestor, excluding one descendant (eg great apes without humans) |
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synapomorphy
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shared derived characteristics ( a trait that is shared by two or more taxa and their last common ancestor, whose ancestor in turn does not possess the trait)
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Archaeopteryx lithographica
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Jurassic (145 Million years ago) limestone in Solenhofen, Germany
Richard Owen- 1861: says reptile Darwin: transitional form Thomas Huxley: elaborated |
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Thomas Huxley
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avian similarities: feathers, forelimb wings, furcula (fused clavicles), pubis points back, partially fused feet bones, first toe (hallux) points backwards, lost 5th digit
reptilian similarites: teeth, long bony jointed tail, unjointed ribs, gastralia (belly ribs), no sternum (some have shown up later), no carpometacarpus (fused hand bones), claws on fingers |
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Dollo's Law
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once a characteristic has been lost it cannot be regained
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Theropods
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mostly carnivorous, ancestors to birds
three-toed foot, a furcula (wishbone), air-filled bones and (in some cases) feathers and brooding of the eggs. |
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thecodonts
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garbage bag, ahistorical group (archaeopteryx was put here for a while)
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Jacques Gauthier
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in the 1980s gave the first rigorous phylogenetic proof of dino origin of birds
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caudofemoralis longus
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part of the leg muscle originally (see it in crocodile), but in modern birds, almost vestigal
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evolution from dino to bird-like
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Archosauria: parental care
Saurischia: hip points forwards (retroverts in maniraptorans), grasping hand theropods: mostly bipedal, reduced first toe, loss fingers 4+5, pneumatic (air-filled) cervical vertebrae tetanurae: pubic boot, 3-fingered hand coelurisauridae: furcula (was actually there!), relatively long arms, brooding eggs, feathers maniraptora: retroverted pubis (back-facing), laterally facing shoulder joint, increased size of hand, bowed ulna, semi-lunate carpal (wrist bone) Aves! |
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shoulder girdle
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furcula + coracoids (pair) + shoulder blade
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furcula
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(wishbone) fused clavicle (collarbone) in higher theropods
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long coracoid
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muscle that pulls wings in flight
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semi-lunate carpal
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allows "praying-mantis" type movement, very like bird flight (evolved in maniraptorans)
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frame-shift hypothesis
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(Wagner and Gauthier)
grow digits I-II-III in place of II-III-IV (loose DV then Carpal I, I-II-III move over) Dahn and Fallon prove with Homeotic transformations of digit identity -add sonic beads to encourage extra growth -add noggin (blocker) to stop growth, change number of extra-cellular signalling molecules as a whole changes |
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pygostyle
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reduced tail bone
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barbs
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branch off rachis
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rachis
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shaft of barbs
multicellular |
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cortex
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outside of rachis: completely solid beta-keratin
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pith
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center of rachis: medullary cells, hollow with air inside
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barbule
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branches off barbs: "glues" them together, single line of individual cells
Point towards tip = distal point towards base = proximal |
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Pennulum
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tip of barbule, each cell is a hooklet, solid beta-keratin
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rachis
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main shaft: cortex and pith, groove on base to resist bending
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calamus
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part that goes into the skin (quill)
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pennaceous
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coherent vane (zipped together)
(when hooked together, closed pennaceous, otherwise open pennaceous) |
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plumulaceous
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tuft, down, fluffy!
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afterfeather
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hyporachis
mirror feather growing out of same place, sharing a calamus |
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pterylae
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feather tracts
mapping where the feathers are on a bird |
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apterium
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parts without feathers
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remiges
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flight feather, wings
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rectrices
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flight feather, tail
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alula
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small projection on the anterior edge of the wing, freely moving first digit
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beta-keratin
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beta-pleated sheet
harder, tougher, stronger per-weight than alpha-keratin only reptiles and birds |
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alpha-keratin
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alpha-helix
all vertebrates both proteins, both occur in skin of vertebrates, both begin with "k" but not related to beta-keratin |
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Integamentary appendages
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things that grow out of the skin
(eg hair, teeth, scales) usually made of epidermis (dead part of the skin) (dermis is the still-living part) |
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contour feathers
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outline of plumage
usually symmetrical tip is closed pennaceous, bottom is down (plumulaceous) can be open pennaceous at tips |
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flight feathers
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remix & rectrix
asymetrical, leading edge is smaller than trailing edge vane to resist bending some have a huge flange off ramus |
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down
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plumulaceous barbule at top, afterfeather
warmth, water repellency interspersed with contour feathers can entirely lack rachis, just barbs off callamus |
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bristles
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few or no barbs or barbules, or barbs that fall off very easily
single structure, stiff rachus mostly on face, around the rictus (mouth), rictal bristles are like whiskers |
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filoplumes
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numerous, small, enigmatic
tiny (3-4mm, only as large as a centimeter), usually next to contour feather long rachis with small tuft of barbs at the tip thought to provide sensory information, some might function as communication (eg cormorrant, white spots in spring are filoplumes growing longer than contour feathers in mating season) |
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powder down
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derived avian dandruff
flake apart and fall apart, form powder that the bird spreads around body during preening mostly ashy or bluish gray, sometimes it has color (rouge) |
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pterylae on the wing
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primaries insert on the hand, on second "finger" (prob b/c it evolved when there was still a grasping hand)
secondaries insert on the ulma (trailing forearm bone) numbered out from wrist |
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erector and depressor muscles
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goosebumps! except voluntary
contour feathers are distributed in a hexagonal array within Pterylae; interconnected by pairs of smooth erector and depressor muscles erectors: bottom of front feathers to top of back feathers depressors: top of front feather to bottom of back feather made possible by fat! (stored in skin) |
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eutaxy
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all secondary feathers present (wing)
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diastataxy
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fifth secondary, covert but no feather
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feather functions
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insulation (thermal, sun)
flight swimming: flying underwater visual signaling: sexual, competitive, parent-child, warning signals sound reduction: eg owls- long penulum, fuzzy surface sound production: "sing with their wings" sound reflection: behind ears, bounce the sound back support: protection from damage water repellency : keep body dry cleanliness : buffered from dirt parasite control : habitat for wee beasties tactile sense : rictal bristles, filoplumes water transport : soak feathers in water to bring to offspring foraging (rictal bristles) : extension of "catcher's mit" |
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birds that make sounds with their wings
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club winged manikin: wings rub against each other, like violin string/bow
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sand grouse
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lives in Old World desert, find water, soak breast feathers to give to nestlings
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placode
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site in epidermus that tells where the feathers will come in
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feather development
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placode => dermal condensation => thickening of epidermis => dermal papilla: short bud is created, first tubular structure => follicle, special cavity at base, by epidermis layer getting more cells (cyllindrical invagination)
epidermal collar = tissue at the base : place of storage of feather stem cells! |
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dermal papilla
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first tubular structure of the feather
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cyllindrical invagination
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create follicle, special cavity at base, by epidermis layer getting more cells
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epidermal collar
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tissue at the base : place of storage of feather stem cells!
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dermal pulp
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in the center of the tube (feather)
provides nutrition to growing cells, keratinocytes=feather cells (entirely epidermal) |
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Sheath
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exterior, outermost portion of epidermus (soft alpha-keratin), will fall off
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Barb ridge
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radial ridges along tube, will grow into barbs
two barbule plates connected to the ramus |
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Barbule Plate
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series of cells that are attached to the developing barbule
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marginal plate epithelium
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inner most layer of the epidermus, single cell wall separating barb ridges, site of expression of genes organizing the development, recruit naive cells
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large barb ridge
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rachis ridge
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new barb ridge locus
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(usually) opposite the large barb ridge
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helical growth
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naive cells at the base form ridges, then move towards rachis, eventually slough off sheath and open up to a feather
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the rachis is formed
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by the fusion of barbs
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pulp caps
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dermus makes a series of lids to this tube
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dorsal
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outer surface, exposed to the top
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feather shape model parameters
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absolute growth rate (feather gets fat if you grow it slowly)
angle of helical growth initial barb ridge number new barb ridge addition function (rate) barb ridge diameter (when they open, it's not the same angle as which they grow) (complexity and redundancy) |
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tubular feathers:
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anterior, posterior, distal, proximal
lateral sides, basal layer (inside) and superficial (outside) inside, outside, front back, side-to-side etc allows multiple axes |
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Turing model of growth of pattern
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(color patterns)
Activation signal (causes more of itself to be created, activates inhibition signal, and vice versa) in the tube |
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why are feathers not from scales?
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top and bottom surfaces of a feather are not homologous to the top and bottom surfaces of a scale: bottom surface of feather is inside of tube, not "bottom"
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Developmental theory of the origin of feathers
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contingent events in development: events that require earlier events, decides the order from simple to complex
stage I: simplest feather = tube, undifferentiated collar/tube (hairlike or spine like, but hollow) stage II: differentiation into barb ridges (tuft) stage IIIa : helical growth and displacement (barb locus and rachis) or stage IIIb: peripheral barbule plates stage IIIa+b: both happen stage IV: differentiated distal and proximal barbules (able to "zip together" and form coherent vein) stage Va: lateral new barb locus (asymetrical penaceous, flying, feather) stage Vb: paired lateral new barb loci (afterfeather) |
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cassoids
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wing feathers like stage I (although actually secondarily simplified) : stiff black tubes
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Liaoning Province, China (NE of Beijing)
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135-125 million years old (Early Cretaceous), lakes w/ volcanoes
Fuzzy dinos: sinosauropteryx: fuzzy! (stage 1 or 2) Sinornithosaurus feathers: filamentous appendages on Ulna dilong paradoxus: early chinese tyranosaurs (with feathers!) |
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feather evolutions
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feathers evolved in a terrestrial lineage of theropod dinos before the origin of birds or flight
theropod feathers had evolved both structural diversity and branched complexity before the origin of birds scale-based, functional and microevolutionary approaches to the origin of feathers have failed the new paleontological evidence strongly supports the morphological stages and sequence of the Developmental Theory of the origin of feathers (simple feathers, then more complicated, branched structures) molecular developmental data strongly support the morphology and sequence of the stages of the developmental model of feather evolution feathers evolved by the repeated evolutionary co-option or re-utilization of the Shh-Bmp2 molecular module in novel developmental contexts feather complexity evolved through historically contingent developmental events selection acting on inherent developmental potential likely created morphological diversity molecular expression patterns support homology of archosaur feather and scale placodes all subsequent feather structures are evolutionary innovations without antecedent homologs - i.e. morphological novelties morphological novelties can evolve through expression of plesiomorphic genes in novel context |
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melanosomes
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packets of which make melanin
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phaeomelanin
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red and brown (jelly bean shape)
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eumelanin
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black (rice grain shape)
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Sonic Hedgehog (Shh)
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a vertebrate developmental regulatory gene
associated with cell proliferation and morphological differentiation in many systems (stay young!) expressed between barb ridges, below plate |
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Bone Morphogenetic Protein2 (Bmp2)
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a member of a gene family known to mediate Shh (get a job!)
expressed between the ridges, but lower down |
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longitudinal expression (stripes) creates four inherent patterns of barb morphogensis
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bifurcation: new barb ridge (new barb ridge creation)
cessation: creation of a rachis with branched barbs (fusion of barb ridges) bifurcation + cessation = feather! fusion: fall apart (loss of barb ridge) de novo initiation: knots (basal division of a barb ridge) evolutionary dead-ends |
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cooption
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reuse same genes in novel ways, so actually far fewer genes in the human genome than we thought, not that different from a fly...
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molt
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seasonal (1 a year, occasionally 2x a year) replacing all feathers on the body
affected by seasonality, reproduction, migration goes over the body from head to toe, in a wave usually symmetrical ordered molt of the flight feathers starting with the wrist and going out |
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shreckmauser
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fright-molt
follicle keeps feather in skin normally, but adrenalline causes it to release (like loosing a tail) |
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feather development (over bird's life)
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natal (first chick)=> juvenal (not juvenile...) plumage => basic plumage (usually winter) (some also have "breeding" plumage)
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delayed plumage maturation
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batboy hypothesis: signalling that they are subdefinitive, announcing self as not-fully adult male (avoid aggression)
(or sneaky copulation) |
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preening
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spreading oils of uropygial gland (by the top of the tail)
spend a lot of time maintaining plumage compromise beak between preening and eating mites, lice are parasitic on bird feathers special bacteria evolved to eat beta-keratin (on living birds) |
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uropygial gland
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by the top of the tail
oils with which to preen |
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endogenous
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made by the animal (melanin)
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melanocytes
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made with the spine, migrates a lot
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eumalanosomes
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tubular/oblong shape : like grain of raice
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melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R)
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mutation, can turn the entire plumage black
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carotenoids
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exogenous (diet)
bio-accumulate (but in a good way) make : red, yellow, orange, pink, + uv unsaturated chain connecting two rings (chain unsaturated) |
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xanthophyls
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no double bonded oxygens (keto-groups)
yellow (+uv) colors |
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ketocarotenoids
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double bonded oxygens (keto-groups) in rings
red, orange, pinks can create ketocarotenoids from xanthophyls |
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exogenous colors
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like DDT but in a good way
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condition dependent coloration
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(if the color is) rare => redder is better
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lutein
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reflection way to measure color
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Methoxy-carotenoids
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rare purple color
(Pompadour Cotinga & Spangled Cotinga) H3CO (methoxy) group on one/both rings |
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Parrot coloring
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use Psittacofulvins (polyenal), unsaturated chain without rings
only ones |
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Copper Containing Porphyrins
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Turacin (deep magenta) and Turacoverdin (olive-green)
porphyrins: metal molecule in the center of carbons (hemo from hemoglobin, and chloraphyl) eg Turaco (Musophagidau) |
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toxins
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Pitohui in New Guinea
Jack Dumbacker: numb hands John Daley: works on Poison Dart Frog: alkaloid chemicals (frog toxins) identical toxins in these birds! from Chloresine (Melyrid) Beetles (smell really bad) |
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incoherent scattering
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Rayleigh/tyndall/Mie scattering: individual scattering objects, differential scatter light wavelengths
same way the sky is mostly blue, but sunset is red |
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coherent scattering
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produces back scattered wavelengths equal to the average path length addition
path length addition determines whether it is in or out of phase, and thus whether it has color size, refractivity and other things change the color crystal-like vs randomly ordered |
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crystal-like periodicity
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coherent scattering comes in 1D, 2D and 3D
iridescence |
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randomly ordered (structural color)
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like a bowl of grapes
at distance of nearest neighbor only coherently scattering quasi-ordered nanostructures frequently mistaken for incoherent (Rayleight) scattering structures |
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iridescence
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change hue with angle of observation and illumination (only occurs with crystal structures)
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white is created by:
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incoherent scattering from unpigmented feather keratin
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refractive index
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a measure of how much the speed of light is reduced inside the medium
greater differences in refractive indices = greater iridescence (eg airfilled melanosomes more vivid) |
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structural purple
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plum-colored starling
=red + blue (red fundamental wave + blue harmonic) |
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Wompoo Pigeon
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not very iridescent because the laminar array is bent, so we see the same color in all directions
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barb ramus colors
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come from coherent scattering off spongy medullary keratin-air matrix (not iridescent, usually)
airbubbles + keratin, then layer of melanin to keep any light that gets to the center from reflecting off structural elements |
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spongy medullary keratin
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in barb ramus
spheres channels |
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structural color of skin
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2D arrays of structural fibers
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sternum
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breast bone
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trioseal canal
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passageway for the supracoracoideus muscle (pulls wing up)
between coracoid, clavicle, scapula |
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clavicle
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fused collarbone (u-shaped structure)
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scapula
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shoulder blade
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humerus
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upper arm
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radius and ulna
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forearm
secondaries attach on the ulna |
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carpometacarpus
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fused 2,3 digits on the "hand"
primaries attach here |
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alula
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first-digit flight feathers
"bastard wing" |
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pectoralis (major)
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main muscle of the breast and wing
inserts on shoulder pulls wing down |
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supracoracoideus
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pulls wing up
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4 forces in flight:
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lift(wings force upward)
weight (up/down) drag(friction of the air, pulling back) thrust(forward component of lift) (behind/in front) |
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Bernoulli Effect
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air pressure includes a static component (pressing down on surfaces) and a dynamic component (moving along surfaces)
static pressure +dynamic pressure = constant! so, more pressure on bottom (moving slower), less on top (air moving faster) = lift ! |
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lift
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difference in static pressure on either side of the wing
always perpendicular to the wing |
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to counter drag:
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rotate wing forward, so that there is vertical and horizontal lift
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asymmetrical flight stroke
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creates a net forward motion (otherwise hover)
angle of incidence on downstroke, up almost flat |
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Energy costs of flight
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power (energy/time) vs velocity (m/time)
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induced power
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pI
how much power does it take to induce lift (takes more energy at low speed) |
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parasitic power
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pp (profile power)
how much power it takes to overcome drag (goes up with speed) |
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Vmp
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velocity of minimum power
(speed that requires least energy over time) forage in the air |
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Vmr
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velocity of maximum range
speed to travel if you want to go the farthest on a given amount of energy flying from one great food patch to another |
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vortex
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fluid flows in a curve when you don't exert just up/down
eddy |
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ring vortex
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asymmetrical wing stroke, oar in the water and then out
eg ducks |
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continuous vortex
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continue to be bound to wing
more efficient, also allows v-shaped flock effect |
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variations in wing shapes
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wing area: sq cm/m, surface provided by wings (usually both wings)
wing loading: mass/wing area wing aspect ratio: measure of pointiness (high = pointy, small = rounded) |
