Ob Chap 3

Front 1

Perception

Back 1

the process of receiving information about
and making sense of the world around us

Front 2

perception (characteristics)

Back 2

A. Select - decide which information to notice

B. Organize - how to categorize this information

C. Interpret - make sense of information within our existing knowledge framework

Front 3

the perceptual process

Back 3

selective attention
perceptual organization and interpretation

Front 4

selective attention

Back 4

– the process of attending to some information
received by our senses
and ignoring other information.
Is influenced by:

characteristics of the object
characteristics of the perceiever

Front 5

characteristics of the object

Back 5

a. Size
b. Intensity
c. Motion
d. Repetition
e. Novelty

Front 6

characteristics of the perceiver

Back 6

a. Emotional markers are
tagged to incoming stimuli
based on a rapid nonconscious evaluation
of whether the information supports or
undermines our needs and drives
b. Expectations shape the process - condition us to expect events (perceptual tunnel vision)
c. Screen out information that opposes our self-concept and beliefs

Front 7

perceptional organization of interpretation

Back 7

categorical thinking
perceptual grouping principles
mental models

Front 8

categorical thinking

Back 8

organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory. Quick and unconscious.

Front 9

perceptual grouping principles

Back 9

a. Closure - filling in missing pieces
b. Identifying trends
c. Similarity or proximity

Front 10

mental models

Back 10

– visual or relational images
in our mind representing the
external world
a. Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’
b. Help us to quickly make sense of situations
c. Generate expectations that may block recognition of new opportunities and perspectives

Front 11

social identity and stereotyping

Back 11

social identity
social perception
stereotyping

Front 12

social identity

Back 12

– people define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment. A COMPARATIVE process.

girl from nova

Front 13

social perception

Back 13

how we perceive others. influenced by:

categorization process
homogenization process
differentiation process

Front 14

categorization process

Back 14

We have mental model of distinct groups
b. We sort people into those distinct groups
c. This removes people’s individuality – they become prototypical representatives of the groups into which we have placed them
d. Allows us to distinguish between groups

Front 15

homogenization process

Back 15

a. We believe that people within a group are very similar - have similar traits
b. Different groups have different traits
c. We lose sight of the individual’s uniqueness

Front 16

differentiation process

Back 16

a. Social identity fulfills our inherent need to have a distinct and positive self-concept
b. We assign more favorable characteristics to people in our groups
c. We assign less favorable characteristics to people in other groups
d. Can escalate into a “good guy-bad guy” contrast when groups are in conflict

Front 17

stereotyping

Back 17

– the process of
assigning traits to people
based on their membership
in a social category

Front 18

three elements of stereotyping

Back 18

a. We develop social categories and assign traits to them
that are difficult to observe
b. We assign people to categories based
on easily observable information
c. People who seem to belong to the stereotyped group
are assigned the non-observable traits

Front 19

occurs for three reasons

Back 19

a. We are cognitive misers – stereotyping is a natural and mostly nonconscious energy saving process that
simplifies our understanding of the world
b. We have an innate drive to understand and anticipate others’ behavior
c. We are motivated to rely on negative stereotypes when others threaten our self-concept

Front 20

problems with stereotyping

Back 20

a. They are not completely fictional, nor are they completely accurate
b. Overgeneralization- stereotypes don’t represent all or most people in the category
c. Lays the foundation for discriminatory behavior
1) Unintentional (systemic) discrimination
a) We rely on stereotypes to establish notions of the “ideal” person in specific roles
b) A person who doesn’t fit the ideal tends to receive a less favorable evaluation
2) Intentional discrimination (prejudice) – a person holds unfounded negative emotions and attitudes toward people belonging to a particular stereotyped group

Front 21

should we avoid stereotyping?

Back 21

a. We can’t – it is hardwired in our brain cells; an automatic and nonconscious process
b. Stereotypes are helpful
1) They minimize cognitive effort needed by filling in missing information
2) They support our social identity
c. Training can help us to minimize activation
d. It is possible to minimize stereotype application

Front 22

attribution theory

Back 22

Attribution process

attribution errors

Front 23

attribution process

Back 23

the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior or event is caused
largely by internal or external factors

Front 24

attribution process (elements)

Back 24

1)internal attribution
2)external attribution
3)the three attribution rules
4)internal attribution is made if
5)external attribution is made if
6)essential perceptual process

Front 25

internal attribution

Back 25

Internal Attribution - perception that person’s behavior is due to motivation or ability rather than situation or fate

Front 26

external attribution

Back 26

external Attribution - perception that behavior is due to situation or fate rather than the person

Front 27

the three attribution rules

Back 27

a. Consistency -- the person’s behavior in the past
b. Distinctiveness -- the person’s behavior in other settings
c. Consensus – how others would behave in same situation

Front 28

internal attribution made if:

Back 28

a. High consistency -- person behaved this way before
b. Low distinctiveness -- person behaves like this toward other people or in different situations
c. Low consensus -- other people do not behave this way in similar situations

Front 29

external attribution made if

Back 29

a. Low consistency
b. High distinctiveness
c. High consensus

Front 30

essential perceptual process

Back 30

a. Forms cause-effect relationships
b. Affects how we respond to others

Front 31

attribution errors

Back 31

fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias

Front 32

fundamental attribution error

Back 32

the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behavior
a. We can’t easily see the external factors that constrain behavior
b. More common in Western and Asian cultures

Front 33

self serving bias

Back 33

– the tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to internal factors
and our failures to external factors

Front 34

self fulfilling prophecy

Back 34

- occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in
a way that is consistent with those expectations

Front 35

self fulfilling prophecy cycle

Back 35

1)expectations formed
2)expectations affect behavior toward employee- high expectancy employees receive:
3)effects on employee
4)employee behavior and performance

Front 36

expectation affect behavior toward employee - high expectancy employees receive:

Back 36

a. More emotional support through nonverbal cues (e.g. more smiling and eye contact);
b. More frequent/valuable feedback/reinforcement;
c. More challenging goals and better training;
d. More opportunities to demonstrate their performance

Front 37

effects on employee

Back 37

a. Better training/practice result in more skills learned
b. Emotional support and feedback
results in stronger self-efficacy --leads to higher motivation and willingness to set more challenging goals

Front 38

employee behavior and performance

Back 38

a. Better motivation/skills leads to high performance
b. High performance reinforces the original perception

Front 39

self-fulfilling prophecy contingencies. self fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest:

Back 39

1. At the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team)
2. When several people have similar expectations about the person
3. When the employee has low rather than high past achievement

Front 40

lessons from self-fulfilling prophecy literature

Back 40

1. Leaders need to develop and maintain a positive, yet realistic, expectation toward all employees
2. Emerging philosophy of positive organizational behavior – suggests that focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being

Front 41

other perceptual errors

Back 41

1)halo effect
2)primacy effect
3)recency effect
4)false consensus effect

Front 42

halo effect

Back 42

our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colors our perception of other characteristics of that person

Front 43

primacy effect

Back 43

we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them

Front 44

recency effect

Back 44

C. Recency effect – the most recent information dominates our perceptions of others

Front 45

false consensus effect

Back 45

D. False-consensus effect – we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own

Front 46

strategies to improve perceptions

Back 46

1)awareness of perceptual biases
2) improving self awareness
3meaningful interaction

Front 47

awareness of perceptual biases

Back 47

1. Implicit Association Test (IAT)
2. https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/
3. Consciously try to minimize these errors

Front 48

improving self awareness

Back 48

1) awareness of your values, beliefs, and prejudices
2) applying johari window (developed by josh luft and harry ingram, hence the name johari)

Front 49

johari window

Back 49

a)increases self-perception and mutual understand with coworkers
b)four "areas"
c) objective is to increase size of open area so that both you and collegues are aware of perceptual limitations. partially accomplished by:

Front 50

four areas

Back 50

1) Open area - information about you that is known to you as well as others
2) Blind area - information that is known to others but not to yourself
3) Hidden area - information known to yourself but unknown to others
4) Unknown area - information about you known to neither you nor others

Front 51

c. Objective is to increase size of open area so that both you and colleagues are aware of your perceptual limitations. Partially accomplished by:

Back 51

1) Reducing the hidden area through disclosure -- tell others about yourself
2) Increase the open area through feedback -- receive information from others about yourself found in the blind area
3) Combination of disclosure and feedback occasionally produces revelations about information in the unknown area

Front 52

meaningful interaction

Back 52

-can improve self awareness and mutual understanding

1)needs specific conditions
2) improves empathy

Front 53

(meaningful interaction)
needs specific conditions

Back 53

a. Close and frequent interaction toward a shared goal where they rely on each other
b. Equal status
c. Engaged in a meaningful task

Front 54

(meaningful interaction)
improves empathy

Back 54

(a person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others)
a. Improves our sensitivity to external causes of another person’s performance and behavior
b. Reduces fundamental attribution error

Front 55

learning in organizations

Back 55

a) learning
b)explicit vs tacit knowledge
c)behavior modification
d) social learning theory
e)learning through experience
f)developing a learning orientation

Front 56

learning

Back 56

a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment

Front 57

explicit vs tacit knowledge

Back 57

1. Explicit knowledge - knowledge that is articulated through language, such as documents
2. Tacit knowledge - knowledge acquired through observation and direct experience

Front 58

behavior modification

Back 58

(also known as operant conditioning and reinforcement theory)

Front 59

behavior modification (elements)

Back 59

1) basics
2)ABC's of behavior modification
3) contingencies of reinforcement
4)comparing reinforcement contingencies
5)schedules of reinforcement
6) evaluating behavior modification

Front 60

basics (behavior modification)

Back 60

a. Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment
b. We “operate” on the environment - alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverse consequences
c. Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant intermediate stages between behavior and the environment

Front 61

ABC's of behavior modification

Back 61

- central objective is to change behavior (B) by managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C).

a)antecedents
b) behavior - what people say or do - e.g. completing a task requested by a supervisor
c) consequences

Front 62

antecedents (behavior modification)

Back 62

1) Events preceding the behavior
2) Provide cues that certain behaviors will have particular consequences
3) Do NOT cause behavior

Front 63

consequences (behavior modification)

Back 63

1) Events following a particular behavior that influences its future occurrence
2) People tend to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences
3) People are less likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences or no consequences at all

Front 64

contingencies of reinforcement

Back 64

four types of consequences that increase, maintain, or reduce the probability that behavior will be repeated

a) positive reinforcement
b) negative reinforcement
c)punishment
d) extinction

Front 65

positive reinforcement

Back 65

-introducing desirable consequence increases/maintains future behavior

Front 66

negative reinforcement

Back 66

removing or avoiding a consequence increases or maintains future behavior (avoidance learning)
1) NOT punishment
2) Reinforces behavior by removing punishment

Front 67

punishment

Back 67

- a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a behavior
1) Positive - introducing an unpleasant consequence – e.g. threat
2) Negative - removing a pleasant consequence – e.g. losing bonus

Front 68

extinction

Back 68

no consequence follows the behavior
1) A do-nothing strategy
2) Behavior that is no longer reinforced tends to disappear; it becomes extinct

Front 69

comparing reinforcement contingencies

Back 69

a. Positive reinforcement usually should follow desired behaviors
b. Extinction should follow undesirable behaviors
c. Punishment and negative reinforcement generate negative emotions and attitudes toward the implementer, but may be necessary for extreme behaviors – maintains a sense of equity

Front 70

schedules of reinforcement

Back 70

the reinforcement schedule (frequency and timing) may have a greater effect on learning and behavior management than the size of the reinforce (NOTE – not all of these are in the book)

a) continuous reinforcement
b) fixed interval (time)
c) variable interval (time)
d) fixed ratio (behavior)
c)variable ratio (behavior)

Front 71

continuous reinforcement

Back 71

1) Reinforce every occurrence of the desired behavior
2) Most effective for learning new tasks
3) Faster extinction when reinforcer removed

Front 72

fixed interval

Back 72

(time)


1) Behavior is reinforced after a fixed period of time
2) Example - employees paid every two weeks

Front 73

variable interval

Back 73

(time)

1) Reinforcer administered after a varying length of time
2) Example - receiving promotions

Front 74

fixed ratio

Back 74

(behavior)


1) Reinforce behavior after it has occurred a fixed number of times
2) Example - piece rate – paid after producing a fixed number of units

Front 75

variable ratio

Back 75

(behavior)

1) Reinforce desired behavior after it occurs a varying number of times
2) Highly resistant to extinction because never expected at a particular time or after a fixed number of accomplishments

Front 76

evaluating behavior modification

Back 76

behavior modification is used in
behavior modification problems

Front 77

behavior modification is used in

Back 77

1) Very day life to influence behavior of others
2) Company programs to reduce absenteeism, improve safety, etc.

Front 78

behavior modification problems include

Back 78

1) Reward inflation – the reinforce is eventually considered an entitlement
2) Therefore, behavior modification programs must run infrequently and for short durations
3) Radical view that behavior is learned only through personal interaction with the environment
4) Learning experts recognize that people also learn by observing others

Front 79

social learning theory

Back 79

– much learning occurs by observing others and then modeling the behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes and avoiding behaviors that lead to punishing consequences.

Front 80

social learning theory (elements)

Back 80

1. Behavioral modeling - observing and modeling behavior of others

2. Learning behavior consequences - observing consequences that others experience

3. Self-reinforcement – employee has control over a reinforce but doesn’t “take” it until completing a self-set goal

Front 81

learning through experience

Back 81

- Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model

1. Concrete experience - sensory and emotional engagement in some activity

2. Reflective observation - listening, watching, recording, elaborating on the experience

3. Abstract conceptualization - develop concepts and integrate observations into logically sound theories

4. Active experimentation - testing previous experience, reflection and conceptualization in a particular context

5. A cyclical process

Front 82

developing a learning orientation

Back 82

Orientation (experiential learning works best in organizations that have a strong learning orientation)

1. Value the generation of new knowledge
2. Reward experimentation
3. Recognize mistakes as part of learning
4. Encourage employees to take reasonable risks

Front 83

organizational learning

Back 83

any structured activity that improves and organization’s capacity to acquire, share, and use knowledge in ways that improve its survival and success (introduced in Chapter 1)

Front 84

knowledge acquisition, knowledge sharing, knowledge use

Back 84

A. Knowledge acquisition - extracting information and ideas from the external environment as well as through insight
1. Hire and/or acquire
2. Learn from external sources
3. Experimentation

B. Knowledge sharing - distributing knowledge to others across the organization

C. Knowledge use - applying knowledge in ways that adds value to the organization and its stakeholders