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325 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the origin of CN I?
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Olfactory mucosa of the upper portion of the nasal cavity
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What is the origin of CN II?
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Ganglion cells of the retina
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What is the origin of CN III?
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Oculomotor nucleus: midbrain at superior colliculus
Edinger-Westphal nucleus: anterior periaqueductal gray |
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What is the origin of CN IV?
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Trochlear Nucleus: midbrain at inferior colliculus in the anterior periaqueductal gray
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What is the origin of CN V?
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Nucleus of spinal tract, chief sensory nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus, motor nucleus: midpons
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What is the origin of CN VI?
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Lower pons at facial colliculus
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What is the origin of CN VII?
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Facial nucleus: lower pons
Nucleus of solitary tract, superior salivatory nucleus: medulla |
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What is the origin of CN VIII?
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Vestibular nuclei: lateral aspect of the 4th ventricle
Cochlear nuclei: acoustic tubercle |
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What is the origin of CN IX?
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Nucleus of solitary tract, nucleus ambiguus: medulla
Inferior salivatory nucleus: pons |
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What is the origin of CN X?
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Dorsal motor nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, nucleus of solitary tract, nucleus of spinal tract of the trigeminal: medulla
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What is the origin of CN XI?
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Nucleus ambiguus and disperse cell bodies: medulla and cervical segments
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What is the origin of CN XII?
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Hypoglossal nucleus: medulla
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The vestibularcochlear nuclei is found on the _______ of the ___ ventricle?
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Floor
4th |
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Where does the vestibularcochlear and facial nerve exit?
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Cerebellopontine angle
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What are the functions of CN VIII?
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Balance and equilibrium connected to the position and movement of the head and auditory
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A lesion to the vestibular portion results in what?
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Vertigo and nystagmus
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A lesion to the cochlear portion results in what?
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Deafness and tinnitus
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What is nystagmus?
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Uncontrollable rhythmical oscillations of the eye
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What is tinnitus?
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Persistent buzzing/ringing sound
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Is the facial nerve, CN VII, motor or sensory?
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Both motor and sensory
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What is the motor nucleus of the facial nerve and what does it control?
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Facial nucleus (pons)
Muscles of facial expression |
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What is the sensory nucleus of the facial nerve and what does it deal with specifically?
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Solitary nucleus (pons)
Taste of anterior tongue |
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What is the secretomotor nucleus of the facial nerve and what does it control?
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Salivatory nucleus (pons)
Salivary glands |
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What two nerves control the tongue?
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CN VII and IX
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What is an upper motor neuron lesion of the facial nerve and what does it effect?
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Supranuclear
Lower opposite side of the face |
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What is a LMN lesion of the facial nerve and what does it effect?
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Infranuclear
Same half of the face |
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What is a LMN lesion of the facial nerve also known as?
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Bell's palsy
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In the case of a facial nerve lesion, the effected area usually exhibits what?
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Inability to close eye, drooping lower eyelid, tearing, drooling, drooping of mouth, etc.
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What is a patient suspected of a facial nerve lesion asked to do?
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Smile while closing eyes tightly
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The trigeminal nerve is a _______ nerve (motor? sensory?)
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Motor AND sensory!
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What does the motor portion of the trigeminal nerve control?
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Muscles of mastication
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What trigeminal nucleus controls pain and temperature of the face and oral cavity?
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Nucleus of the Spinal Tract
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In the trigeminal nerve, what is in charge of proprioception?
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Mesencephalic nucleus (muscles of the face)
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In CN V, what controls pressure and discriminatory tactile sensation and of what structures?
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Principle sensory nucleus (skin of face, sinuses, nose, tongue, teeth and gums)
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What may occur if the trigeminal nerve has a lesion?
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Deviation of jaw, inability to bite down, tic douloureux, facial anesthesia, shingles, headache
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Shingles is the result of _________ causing _________ pain along the _________
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Herpes Zoster
Unilateral Pain Sensory distribution of the nerve |
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What is sudden unilateral severe sharp stabbing pain along the distribution of the nerve?
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Tic douloureux (trigeminal neuralgia)
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In a CN V lesion, what side does the jaw deviation occur on and why?
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Same side because of unopposed action of the contralateral side pterygoid muscle
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The Abducent nerve CN __, is a motor or sensory nerve?
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CN VI
Motor |
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Where it he nucleus and exit of CN VI?
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Nucleus is in the pons, exits between the basilar pons and pyramid of medulla
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What is the function of the Abducent? Ipsilateral or contralateral control?
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Innervate lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball
Ipsilateral |
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What is the failure to move the eyes laterally?
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Medial stabismus
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What does the reticular formation control and a lesion of it may cause what?
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ANS, somatic and visceral sensation muscles
Coma |
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A lesion to the corticospinal tract of the pons results in what?
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Contralateral hemparesis of trunk and extremities
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A lesion to the corticobulbar tract or nucleus of the pons results in what?
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Contralateral weakness of the lower face
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A lesion tot he medial lemniscus of the pons results in what?
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Loss of vibration sensation, discriminatory tactile sensation and contralateral loss of proprioception
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The Bell-Magendie law states what?
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Sensory information enters spinal cord via dorsal roots
Motor information leaves via ventral roots |
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What is proprioception?
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Knowledge of limbs in space
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What cranial nerves are associated with the midbrain?
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Oculomotor, CN III
Trochlear, CN IV |
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What raises the superior eyelid?
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Levator palpebrae superioris
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What nerve innervates the superior oblique?
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CN IV, Trochlear
(SO4) |
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What nerve innervates the lateral recti muscle?
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CN VI, Abducent
(LR6) |
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Unless noted, what nerve innervates an eye muscle?
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CN III, Oculomotor
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The oculomotor nerve has 2 nuclei at the level of _________ in the _________
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Superior colliculus
Periaqueductal gray |
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What nuclei of the oculomotor innervates the ciliaris and sphincter papillae?
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Edinger-Westphal nucleus (parasympathetic)
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What occurs when light is shown on the eye pupil causing contraction?
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Pupillary light reflex
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What is the only nerve to exit dorsally?
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CN IV, Trochlear
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What is the focusing thickening adjustment of the ciliaris called?
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Accomodation reflex
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What is diplopia?
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Double vision
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Why does diplopia occur?
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Loss of conjugate movement
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What is mydriasis?
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Dilated pupil
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What causes mydriasis?
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Paralysis of sphincter papillae and unopposed dilation action by sympathetic
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What is cycloplegia and what do you lose with it?
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Paralysis of the ciliaris, loss of accommodation reflex
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The nucleus of the trochlear nerve lies in the _________ at the level of the _________
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Periaqueductal gray at the level of the inferior colliculus
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What is lost when the oculomotor nerve is lesioned?
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Ptosis, lateral strabismus, diplopia, mydriasis, cycloplegia, and loss of light reflex
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What is lost when the trochlear nerve is lesioned?
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Weakness of downward gaze and diplopia when looking downward and inward
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Where does the trochlear nerve decussate?
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Superior medullary velum
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The nucleus of the abducent nerve is in the _________ beneath the _________
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Pons
Facial colliculus |
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A lesion to the abducent nerve, CN VI, results in what 2 things?
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Medial strabismus and diplopia
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What occurs in the first week of neuroembryology?
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Fertilization of egg by sperm, cleavage (series of mitotic division), implantation
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What occurs in the second week of neuroembryology?
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Reorganization of the blastocyst into a bilaminar embryonic germ disc
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What three things occur during the third week of neuroembryology?
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Gastrulation
Notochord and prechordal plate formation Neurulation |
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During gastrulation, the _________ develops into the _________
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Primitive groove
Epiblast |
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The primitive groove becomes the _________ and moves down displacing the _________
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Primitive streak, primitive hypoblast
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Gastrulation results in the trilaminar disc, the components are what 3 things?
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Endoderm
Ectoderm Hypoblast |
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The remaining epiblast from gastrulation is what?
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Ectoderm
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The _________ condensing along the primitive streak forms what 2 things?
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Mesoderm
Notochordal process and prechordal plate |
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As the notochordal process becomes the notochord, they stimulate what tissue change?
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Overlaying ectoderm into neural tissue
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The neural plate is derived from the _________?
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Ectoderm
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The notochord is derived from what?
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Mesoderm
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The notochord and the prechordal plate approximate to form what over the notochord?
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Neural plate
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What is neurulation?
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Formation of the neural plate, neural tube and neural crest cells
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The neural plate gives rise to what?
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CNS
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The neural crest cells give rise to what?
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Parts of the CNS and other structures
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Persistence of mesenchyme formation, thus a lack of _________, results in _________
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No primitive streak, sacroccogyeal teratoma
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The neural plate invaginates and closes forming what?
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Neural tube
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The neural tube _________ of somites form the spinal cord; it has _________ walls and a _________ tube
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Caudal to the 4th pair
Thick wall Small tube |
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What forms the brain?
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Neural TUBE cranial to the 4th pair of somites
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What forms the ventricular system?
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Neural CANAL cranial to the 4th pair of somites
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During neurulation, where do the neural crest cells form and where do they end up?
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Edge/hinge point
Under surface ectoderm |
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What trunk structures are derived from the neural crest?
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DRG, sympathetic chain ganglion, parasympathetic chain ganglion, Schwann cells, melanocytes, adrenal medulla
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Neural tube cells form _________ cells, which turn into the 3 stratified layers
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Neuroepithelial
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What are the 3 layers of the neural tube?
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Ventricular (glial and neuroblasts)
Mantle (gray CNS from neuroblasts) Marginal (axons) |
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Which neural tube plate produces the dorsal horn?
The ventral horn? What separates them? |
Dorsal: alar plate
Ventral: basale plate Sulcus limitans separates them |
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During the 4th week, the DRG forms from the _________ eventually resulting in what key structure?
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Neural crest cells
The spinal nerve |
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For pathway formation, the medial branches from the DRG may do what 3 things?
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Synapse with intermediolateral column and ventral horn cells
Ascend forming funiculi |
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What is the failure of the neural folds to fully differentiate?
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Craniorachischisis totalis
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What are the 3 primary vesicles?
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Proencephalon
Mesencephalon Rhombencephalon |
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The forebrain becomes what secondary structures? What does each structure ultimately become?
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Telecephalon (cerebrum)
Diencephalon (thalami) |
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The midbrain becomes what secondary structures? What does each structure ultimately become?
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Mesecephalon (midbrain)
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The hindbrain becomes what secondary structures? What does each structure ultimately become?
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Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
Myelencephalon (medulla and spinal cord) |
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Failure to close what at 26 days may result in spina bifida?
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Caudal neuropore
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Failure to close what at 24 days may result in what?
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Cranial neuropore, anencephaly
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What is found in the mature ventricular system? What is it made of?
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Choroid plexus of the ventricles
Pia mater |
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Choroid plexus helps in the production of what?
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CSF
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_________ and _________ form the choroid plexus; together they are known as what?
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Ependymal layer of neural tube and pia mater from neural crest cells
Tele choroidea |
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What is hydrocephalus?
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Blockage of CSF resulting in intracranial pressure and abnormal growth
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What is obstructive hydrocephalus?
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Narrow spaces with enlarged ventricles upstream of the blockage
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What is aqueductal stenosis?
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Tumor of midbrain or debris after hemorrhage compresses cerebral aqueduct
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What marks the cranial end of the neural tube?
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Lamina terminalis
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_________ is associated with the deep tendon reflex to prevent _________ injury
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Muscle spindle
Muscle |
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_________ is associated with the tension of muscle to prevent _________ injury
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Golgi tendon organ
Tendon |
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Where and what is the Golgi Tendon organ?
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Encapsulated Ib proprioceptors in between the muscle and tendon
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What synapses with the Ib interneuron?
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Ib from Golgi
Cutaneous receptors Joint receptors |
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What does the inhibitory Ib interneuron do?
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Inhibits the alpha motor neuron pool of agonist
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What is the flexion and crossed extension reflex?
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A delta nociceptors cause the flexion (withdraw) of injured limb while extending contralateral limb
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The nucleus gracilis and cutaneous gives rise to _________, decussate to _________, end up as _________
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Internal arcuate fibers
Medial lemniscus Ventral posterior lateral thalamic nucleus |
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From the ventral posterior lateral thalamic nucleus the fibers run where?
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Through the internal capsule to the somatosensory cortex (area 1 ,2, 3)
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How is the deep sensibility tract examined?
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Romberg's test
Dermatomes, tuning forks upper extremity position sense |
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Where does proprioception come from?
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Lower extremity (spinocerebellar tract)
Upper (cuneatus) |
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What tracts are involved in pain and temperature regulation? What are they collectively known as?
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Spinothalamic, spinoreticular, spinomesencephalic
Anterolateral system |
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Describe the pathway of the spinothalamic tract all the way to the somatosensory cortex
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Tract --> ventral white commissure --> ventral posterior lateral thalamic nucleus --> internal capsule --> 3, 1, 2
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How is the pain and temperature tracts examined?
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Pinwheel over dermatomes
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What are the general structures of the basal ganglia?
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Lentiform nucleus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic nuclues, substantia nigra
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What individual structures are located in the lentiform nucleus?
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Putamen, Globus Pallidus II, I
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Where is the head of the caudate nucleus located?
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Lateral wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle
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Where is the tail of the caudate nucleus located?
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Roof of inferior horn of lateral ventricle ending inferiorly in the amygdala
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What are the individual entities of the substantia nigra, and what does each secrete?
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Pars compacta (dopamine)
Pars reticulata (GABA) |
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What exactly is the corpus striatum?
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Caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus
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What is comprised of the head of the caudate nucleus and the putamen?
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Neostriatum
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In the basal ganglia cortex excite/inhibit pathways, the cortex secretes _________ from area ___
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Glutamate, Area 4
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What area of the cortex is excited/inhibited by the thalamus?
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Area 6
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What are the nuclei of the thalamus stimulated by globus pallidus I and II?
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VA and VL thalamic nuclei
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Excitation of area 6 and the supplementary cortex results in what?
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Excitation of motor nucleus and initiation of movement
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What are the hypokinetic disorders?
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Akinesia (inability to initiate movements)
Bradykinesia (slowness and shuffling of movement) |
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The largest group of hyperkinetic disorders are dyskinesias, name the subtypes of dyskinesia.
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Chorea, ballismus, athetosis, dystonia
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What may be the cause of Parkinson's disease?
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Depletion of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra
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What are possible treatments of Parkinson's?
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L-Dopa, embryonic dopamine cells, pallidotomy (VA and VL nuclei cauterization)
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What are the symptoms of Parkinson's?
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Akinesia, bradykinesia, resting tremor, cogwheel rigidity, flexed posture, masking, shuffling
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What is Huntington's disease?
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Autosomal disease, onset at 40s-50s, slow degeneration of neurons in striatum
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What are the symptoms of Huntington's disease?
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Chorea, dementia, behavioral or psychiatric disturbances
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How soon after onset do patients normally die from Huntington's disease?
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15-20 years (also high suicide rate)
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What is chorea?
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Involuntary twitching of the extremities and face that progressively worsens and expands
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What is Sydenhams chorea?
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Transient childhood chorea associated with rheumatic fever and affects the striatum
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What is athetosis?
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Degeneration of globus pallidus, results in writhing movements of distal extremities
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What is ballism?
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Lesion of subthalamic nucleus, contralateral involvement, movements of proximal extremities and trunk
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What is Wilson's disease?
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Can't metabolize Cu, Cu accumulates in liver and becomes toxic to liver and basal ganglia
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What are some symptoms of Wilson's disease?
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Liver cirrhosis, Keyser-Fleischer ring (Cu ring around iris)
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What is an injury of the lentiform nucleus resulting in c-contractions called?
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Dystonia, musculorum deformans
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What is torticollis?
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Focal dystonia
Constant spasms of SCM and tracts |
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What is an upper eyelid focal dystonia (twitch) called?
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Blepharospasm
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What can be seen in a brain horizontal in a patient with Wilson's disease?
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No caudate, little putamen
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What are the cortical associations areas?
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Anterior frontal lobe, posterior parietal lobe
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What do the cortical association areas and basal ganglia do?
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Motor and sensory environmental respectance to self
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What was the target of the thalamus in the direct/indirect pathways?
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Area 6 (pre-motor and supplementary motor cortex)
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What is the primary motor cortex?
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Area 4 in the pre-central gyrus
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What is the function of the cerebellum and motor cortex in motor control?
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Plan the sequence and timing of muscle contraction and relaxation of muscle for smooth motion
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What areas are located in the post-central gyrus?
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3, 1, 2
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What are the 2 descending pathways for the execution of movement?
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Lateral pathway and ventromedial pathway
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Where is the lateral pathway located and what tracts are included in it?
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Lateral funiculus, lateral corticospinal tract and rubrospinal tract
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The lateral pathway influences motor neurons that innervate _________
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Distal muscles of limbs
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The medial pathway influences motor neurons that innervate _________
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Axial and proximal limb muscles
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Why do we mainly see lower face systems?
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The corticobulbar tract for LMNs of brainstem is bilateral
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UMN lateral corticospinal tract goes from the motor cortex to the distal flexors. Map it.
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Corona radiata --> posterior limb --> crus cerebri --> basilar pons --> pyramid --> posterior decussation
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Rubrospinal tract begins with the _________ nucleus, crosses the pons and innervates the _________
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Distal flexor muscles
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What are the symptoms of lateral pathway injury?
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Paresis/paralysis, spasticity, hyper reflexes, clasp knife rigidity, Babinski, no superficial reflex
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What tracts tend to overtake most of the rubrospinal tract function?
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Corticospinal
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The pontine reticulospinal tract begins in the _________ and ends in the _________
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Reticular formation in pons, bilateral ventral horns
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What does the pontine reticulospinal tract innervate?
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Antigravity muscles (example: quadriceps femoris, scalenes)
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Where does the medullary reticulospinal tract begin and end?
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Reticular formation of medulla --> bilateral ventral horns
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What is the purpose of the medullary reticulospinal tract?
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Inhibit antigravity muscles
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Where does the vestibulospinal tract begin and end?
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Vestibular nuclei --> bilateral ventral horns
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What is the purpose of the vestibulospinal tract?
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Head and back muscles on directional info from ear, also innervates upper and lower limb extensors
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What is the path of the tectospinal tract?
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Superior colliculus --> cross in medulla --> ventral horn
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What is the purpose of the vestibulospinal tract?
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Coordinates head and eye movements
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What tracts would be lost with a lesion to the vestibular nuclei?
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Corticospinal and rubrospinal
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What is decerebrate rigidity? What also needs to be cut to reduce it? Stop it?
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Tonic extension, vestibular nerves, dorsal roots
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What is decorticate rigidity?
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Tonic extension of legs with flexion of arms
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What tract tends to cancel each other out therefore they cannot prevent the 2 rigidities?
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Pontine and medullary reticulospinal tract
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Why is there no tonic extension in the arms with decorticate rigidity?
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Red nucleus projections can counteract the vestibular extension function of the arms
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In the ventral horn, extensors tend to be _________ placed, and distal muscles _________ placed
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Extensors, distal muscles
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Extrafusal muscles (power generating) are innervated by _________ neurons
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Alpha-motor neuron
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What are intrafusal muscles and what are they innervated by?
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Muscle fibers within muscle spindles, gamma motor neurons
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What is a muscle fasciculation?
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Visible muscle twitching from contraction of an entire motor unit (motor unit disease)
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What is a muscle fibrillation?
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Spontaneous activity of a single muscle fiber (muscle denervation/myopathy)
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What is a muscle spindle comprised of?
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Intrafusal muscle, sensory afferents and motor axons
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What is the purpose of the gamma innervated intrafusal muscles?
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Keep muscle spindle open for maintenance of sensitivity
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The proprioceptors of the muscle spindle send info to the ___ and ___
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FC, FG
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What type of fibers in the muscle spindle detect muscle stretch?
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Ia, II
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What is a dynamic intrafusal fiber?
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Sensitive to rate of change (fire during input), Ia
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What is a static intrafusal fiber?
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Slowly adapting stretch receptors (fire at start and end), Ia & II
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The dynamic and static intrafusal fibers are subtypes of what group?
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Nuclear bag fibers
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Describe the stretch reflex?
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Monosynaptic connection between Ia and alpha motor causing muscle contraction in response to stretch
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The Ia inhibitory interneuron inhibits the _________
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Antagonist muscle
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What prevents the over-excitation of muscles around a joint?
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Recurrent Renshaw cell inhibition
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Specifically, what does the Renshaw inhibitory cell do?
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Excites the antagonist and inhibits agonist
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What structures are found in the limbic lobe?
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Septal area, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, uncus
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In addition to the limbic lobe, what structures are found in the limbic system?
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Hypo-, epi-, thalamus, brainstem reticular formation, olfactory cortex, pre-frontal cortex
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What are the components of the hippocampal formation?
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Parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subculum
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What is the function of the hippocampus?
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Map of spatial memory, learning, passage of short term to long term explicit memory
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What is the order of projection (efferent route) of the hippocampal formation?
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Hippocampus --> fornix --> mammillary bodies --> anterior nucleus of the thalamus --> cingulate gyrus
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Afferents enter the hippocampal formation from what sources?
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Entorhinal area, thalamus, locus coeruleus, raphe nucleus, ventral tegmental area, hippocampal commissure
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The afferents from the hippocampal commissure arrive from what place?
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Contralateral hippocampus
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The entorhinal area of the parahippocampal gyrus is part of what cortex?
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Primary olfactory cortex
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A lesion to the hippocampal formation would result in what?
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Defects in explicit memory and spatial orientation
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Where are the cell bodies of the hippocampus found?
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Fornix
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What are the subtypes of explicit memory? What is it also known as?
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Episodic (events) and semantic (facts)
Declarative memory |
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Where is explicit memory found (aside of hippocampal formation)?
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Medial temporal lobe
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What are the types of implicit memory?
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Priming, procedural, emotional and musculoskeletal responses to associative learning
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All sensory information hits the _________ before it goes to its proper cortex
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Amygdala
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Priming occurs in the _________, and procedural memory in the _________
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Neocortex, striatum
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Where do emotional responses to associative learning occur? Musculoskeletal responses?
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Amygdala, cerebellum
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Efferents from the amygdala travel via _________ to what 4 areas?
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Stria terminalis, septal nuclei, hypothalamus, brainstem, cortex
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What type of information converges upon the amygdala?
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Autonomic, sensory, auditory, and visual information
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What is the function of the amygdala?
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Affective perception of sensory stimuli
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Overstimulation of the limbic system may result in what?
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Intense feeling of fear, possibly olfactory hallucination
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What are the limbic system syndromes/diseases?
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Kluver Bucy syndrome, Korsakoff's syndrome, temporal lobe epilepsy, Schizophrenia, Alzheimer's
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What is the lesion of Kluver Bucy syndrome?
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Bilateral complete lesion of amygdala and hippocampal formation
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What are the results of Kluver Bucy syndrome?
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Visual agnosia, hyperorality, hypersexuality, docility, apathy, bulima, memory deficit
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The senile plaques containing an _________ are found in the _________ and _________ cortices of Alzheimer's
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Amyloid protein, temporal frontal and parietal cortices
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What are the symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy?
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Olfactory/visual/auditory hallucinations, lip smack, motor acts, temporal amnesia, aggressiveness
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What is the function of the septal area?
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Emotional behavior, reward reaction, transient rage, water consumption
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Sound below 20Hz is known as _________, above 20kHz _________
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Infrasound
Ultrasound |
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What are the muscles of the inner ear? What are they innervated by?
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Tensor tympani and stapedius muscle
CN VII |
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The cochlea spirals around what?
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Bony modiolus
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The tensor tympani connects to the _________ and functions for what purpose?
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Malleus
Make ossicles more rigid to protect against loud sounds |
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Why do sudden loud sounds hurt?
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Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles attenuation reflex is at a 50 - 150msec delay
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How does the middle ear amplify the sound pressure 22 times?
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Large surface to small surface
Ossicles act as levers |
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Displaced by the stapes, the _________ causes _________; any unabsorbed energy distorts the _________
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Oval window
Fluid movement Round window |
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The membranes are located at the _________
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Body
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Where is the basilar membrane thicker?
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At the apex
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Extracellular space of detector cells contain what?
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K+
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The scalas vestibuli (SV) and scalas tympani (ST) contain _________, which is rich in _________
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Perilymph, Na+
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Name, in order, the spaces and structures of the cochlea
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SV, Reissner's membrane, scalas media, basilar membrane, ST
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The SM contains _________, which is rich in _________ due to _________ secreting K+ while _________
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Endolymph, K+, stria vascularis, absorbing Na+
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What are the sensory cells on the basilar membrane?
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Organ of Corti
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How is sound coded in the basilar membrane?
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Base/narrow/rigid = high frequency
Apex/wide/floppy= low frequency |
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The basilar membrane is wide at the _________ of the cochlea
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Apex
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The Organ of Corti contains _________, _________ cells and _________ cells
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Rods of corti
Inner and outer hair cells Supporting cells |
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Organ of Corti sits on the __________ and is covered by the __________
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Basilar membrane, tectorial membrane
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What produces the receptor potential?
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Bending of the 100 stereocilia of each hair cell
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Which hair cells have stereocilia extending into the tectorial membrane?
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Outer hair cells
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Inner hair cells synapse with the __________ whose axons form the __________
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Bipolar spiral ganglion cells
Cochlear nerve |
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Which hair cells are distal to the pillar cells?
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Outer hair cells
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What happens when stereocilia bend due to upward movement?
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K+ channels open, depolarize, Ca+ channels open, neurotransmitter (glutamate) release on spiral ganglion
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Downward movement of the basilar membrane causes __________
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Hyperpolarization
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How do we know that outer hair cells may deal with amplification?
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Ototoxic antibiotics destroy them leading to hearing loss
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How many spiral ganglion cells are there?
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30,000
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Spiral ganglion cells form the __________ and later synapse with the __________
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Cochlear nerve, cochlear nuclei
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Each fiber of the spiral ganglion holds a specific frequency, thus it has __________
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Tonotopic organization
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What type of cells are in the ventral cochlear nuclei and what do they do?
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Stellate (frequency encode), Bushy (fire at sound onset and aid in horizontal localization)
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What type of cells are in the dorsal cochlear nucleus and what do they do?
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Fusiform (frequency encode, aid in vert sound localization)
Tuberculoventral (delayed, inhibit echo) |
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If you lesion one side after the cochlear nuclei what would result?
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Bilateral hearing loss with more pronounced contralaterally
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how is horizontal localization achieved?
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Medial olivary nucleus processes auditory time delay between ears
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When is interaural time delay the most striking? Interaural intensity?
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Low frequencies, high frequencies
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In addition to round window distention, how are echos avoided?
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Hyperpolarization and resting phases
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Intensity difference between the two ears is detected by the __________
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Lateral superior olivary nucleus
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The cochlear nerve fibers synapse __________ with the __________, who's fibers form the __________
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Superior olivary nuclei
bilaterally Lateral lemniscus |
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Some fibers from the lateral lemniscus synapse with the __________; most synapse with the __________
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Nucleus of the lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus
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Describe the inferior colliculus.
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4 layer dorsal nucleus (auditory and somatosensory) and multi-central nucleus with a complete tonotopic map
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The __________ holds a complete __________ and receives fibers from the inferior colliculus
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Medial geniculate nucleus
Somatotopic map |
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What is the primary auditory cortex?
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Transverse Temporal Gyri of Heschl (area 41, 42) near superior temporal gyrus
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Conductive hearing loss results from __________
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Insult to the middle ear
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Sensorineural hearing loss results from __________
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Loss of cochlear hair cells
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What does otosclerosis result in?
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Ossification of ossicle attachments
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Otis media results from __________
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Scar tissue on tympani ossicles
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The TTG of Heschl is __________ organized and is the second point of what?
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Tonotopically, localization of sound (columns responsive to frequency and interaural relationships)
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Where is the tuning fork placed in Weber's test?
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Vertex or nasion
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Sound lateralization in Weber's could mean what 2 things?
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Lateralizes to conductive deaf ear, lateralizes away from sensorineural ear
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Where is the tuning fork placed in Rinne's test?
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Mastoid process, later by ear when fork is more quiet
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After the fork is moved, and the patient cannot hear it __________ loss is suspected.
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Conductive
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For Rinne's, if time of hearing significantly differs between ears __________ loss is suspected
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Sensorineural
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What is the labyrinth composed of?
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Cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals
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The bony labyrinth contains __________ and is continuous with the __________
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Perilymph Na+
CSF |
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The membranous labyrinth communicates with the __________
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Endolymphatic sac
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What does the endolymphatic sac continually absorb?
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Endolymph
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The vestibular system helps with what 3 things?
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Posture, muscle tone, and eye position in respect to the head
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In the static labyrinth, the hair cells are called the __________ and __________
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Macula utricle, macula succuli
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What are the static hair cells embedded in and what does it change?
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Gelatinous otolithic membrane containing CaCO3
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The static labyrinth is comprised of __________ and detect __________
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Utricle and saccule
Static orientation in respect to gravity |
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The semicircular canals can detect all possible direction of movement, how?
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Orthogonally oriented
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The kinetic labyrinth, which detects __________, contains the __________
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Angular deceleration/acceleration
Semicircular cells |
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What are the labyrinth hair cells and where are they located?
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Crista ampullaris, ampullae
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The crista ampullaris is embedded in the __________
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Gelatinous cupula
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__________ influx causes vestibular hair cell depolarization
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Potassium
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Vestibular hair cells have __________ on one end, and __________ on the other end
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Microvilla
Kinocilium |
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When microvilla __________ the cell will depolarize
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Bend toward the kinocilium
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When does the cell hyperpolarize?
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When microvilla bend away from the kinocilium
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V. receptors synapse with __________ cells of the __________ whose axons form the __________
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Bipolar cells, vestibular ganglia, vestibular nerve
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Where does the vestibular nerve enter the brainstem?
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Cerebellopontine angle lateral to facial
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What 3 places does the vestibular nuclei project?
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Vestibulospinal tract, flocculonodular lobe and fastigial nerve of cerebellum, nerve of CN III, IV, VI via MLF
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Fibers from the vestibular nerve may also ascend to the __________ and from there to the __________
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Ventral posterior thalamic nucleus, parietal association area
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Why does internuclear opthalmoplegia occur in a MLF lesion?
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CN VI can no longer synchronize with CN III
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With what diseases is internuclear opthalmoplegia often seen?
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MS, vascular diseases (NOT vestibular disease specific)
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Describe the Barany chair test
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patient flexes forward while being spun, stopped abruptly
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What is the result of the Barany chair test in an intact system?
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Nystagmus opposite that of direction of rotation
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Describe caloric testing.
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Warm of cold water is placed in the external acoustic meatus
Nystagmus= COWS (cold opposite, warm same) |
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What are the symptoms of a vestibular lesion?
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Vertigo, nystagmus, disequilibrium
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How can you tell a central vestibular lesion from a peripheral vestibular lesion?
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Central: nystagmus in all directions without vertigo
Peripheral: nystagmus horizontal with vertigo |
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What is Meniere's disease?
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Equilibrium loss, nystagmus vertigo, progressive hearing loss and tinnitus, onset in 20s-30s
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An acoustic neuroma is __________ and usually found at __________
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Common benign Schwann cell tumor, internal acoustic meatus or cerebellopontine angle
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An acoustic neuroma may also effect what nerves?
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Facial and trigeminal nerves
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Most odors that we can smell are __________
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Noxious
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Where is the olfactory epithelium?
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Top of nasal cavity around cribiform plate
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What makes the olfactory nerve a unique sensory tissue?
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Old receptors can be replaced regularly with new ones
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Olfactory receptor cells are __________ whose __________ form the __________
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Bipolar cells, unmyelinated axons, olfactory nerve
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What helps to trap odorants?
|
Mucous and odorant binding proteins
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The olfactory nerve travels and synapses with the __________ cells of the __________
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Mitral and tuft
Olfactory bulb |
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What ion movement depolarizes the olfactory cell?
|
Ca2+ IN
Cl- OUT |
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Bulb fibers proceed into the __________ and divides into the __________
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Olfactory tract
Medial and lateral olfactory stria |
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What makes up the primary olfactory cortex?
|
Piriform and entorhinal cortex in the anterior parahippocampal gyrus
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Olfaction is the only sense to __________
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Reach cortex WITHOUT synapsing in the thalamus
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The piriform cortex relays information to the __________ and __________
|
Orbitofrontal olfactory cortex
Dorsomedial thalamic nucleus |
|
|
What is the primary olfactory association cortex?
|
Orbitofrontal olfactory cortex
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The facial nerve has what branch/nerve receiving information from the tongue?
|
Chorda tympani
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What cranial nerves synapse in the __________ nucleus for taste?
|
CN VII, IX, X
Solitary nucleus |
|
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Name the ganglion for each CN of taste.
|
CN VII: genicular ganglion
CN IX: inferior ganglion CN X: inferior-nodose ganglion |
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Afferents of the solitary nucleus synapse with the __________ travel through the __________ to the __________
|
Ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus, posterior limb, primary gustatory cortex
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Where is the primary gustatory cortex located?
|
Post-central gyrus, operculum, superior portion of insula
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Gustatory afferents are ________
|
Pseudounipolar
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How is a salty taste sensation generated?
|
Na in --> depolarization --> Ca in--> vesicular release
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How is a sour taste sensation generated?
|
H in --> K cannot leave --> depolarization --> Ca in --> vesicular release
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How is a sweet taste sensation generated?
|
G protein --> K cannot leave --> depolarization --> Ca in --> vesicular release
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How is a bitter taste sensation generated?
|
K cannot leave --> depolarization --> vesicular release
or G protein --> internal Ca release --> vesicular release |
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How is an umami taste sensation generated?
|
Na in --> depolarization --> Ca in --> vesicular release
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