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362 Cards in this Set

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Define malnutrition
Any condition caused by excess or deficient food energy or nutrient intake or by an imbalance of nutrients
Does nutrition affect acute or chronic health?
Can be either
Where are chronic effects of malnutrition more common ?
Non-industrialized countries
What is the role of nutrition in health ?
Many diseases can have nutritional components to them.

Four of the top ten leading causes of death have a nutritional component
Other choices that affect long term health (not nutrition)
- tobacco, alcohol and other substance abuse
- physical activity
- sleep
- stress levels at home and work
List the 6 nutrient categories. Which are macro-nutrients, micro-nutrients, and which are energy nutrients?
What are organic nutrients (energy nutrients)? List examples
They contain carbon-to-carbon and carbon-to-hydrogen bonds.
Ex: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
What type of nutrients cannot be made within the body and must be obtained via diet?
essential nutrients
List 5 Food types and what they mean
- basic foods or whole foods – unprocessed and unrefined. Ex: diary, meats, fruits, vegetables and grains

-processed foods - basic foods altered by milling, changing texture, cooking, etc. 2 Types.

- staple foods - foods used almost daily within diet

- organic foods – grown without pesticides or chemical

- Fast food
List the 2 types of processed food and what they mean
- enriched food – nutrients have been added to replace those lost in processing.

- fortified food – nutrients have been added in higher concentration than unprocessed food.
How is the nutritive value of processed food determined ?
by origin basic food and type of processing
What are partitioned foods?
composed of parts of whole foods. What we refer to being empty calories.
What are functional foods? What are limitations of these?
They may contain known biologically-active compounds which when in defined quantitative and qualitative amounts provides a clinically proven and documented health benefit, and thus, an important source in the prevention, management and treatment of chronic diseases.

Limitation: they do not have to actually function within the food, only be present.
What is the legal definition of natural foods or nutriceuticals?
There is none
10 common choices when selecting our food.
- Personal preference
- Habit
- Ethnic heritage or tradition
- Social interaction
- Availability, convenience and economy
- Positive and negative associations
- Emotional comfort
- Values
- Body weight and image
- Nutrition and health benefits
4 factors that influence taste
Sugar content
Fat content
Salt content
Innate preference
Describe the current trend of portion sizes
fewer items but larger portions becoming more typical
In what unit is the energy obtained from foods measured?
Calorie, the capital C is important.

1000 calories = 1 dietary Calorie = 1 Kilocalorie
Energy values of fats, protein, carbohydrate and alcohol?
- fat = 9kcal/g
- protein = 4 kcal/g
- carbohydrate = 4 kcal/g
- alcohol = 7 kcal/g
(alcohol is non-nutrient energy)
4 uses of energy nutrients within the body
- Uses specific to nutrient

- Building blocks for other molecules

- Metabolized to produce ATP to power reactions of the cells

- Energy storage as glycogen and adipose
What are Dietary reference intakes (DRI)?
System of nutrition recommendations determined by council of US and Canadian scientists based on examination of all refereed studies
Do the values of the dietary reference intakes change based on gender and age?
Yes
what is the median requirement of a group called?
Estimated average requirement (EAR)
define recommended daily allowance (RDA)
Average daily amount of a nutrient considered adequate to meet the needs of virtually all healthy people. This should be your dietary goal.
What is the average daily amount that appears to be sufficient to maintain a certain criteria called?
Adequate intake. It is used when RDA cannot be determined.
Define tolerable upper intake level (UL)
Upper safe limit for a nutrient. Higher doses risk toxicity. Important to consider when taking mega dose supplements or high use of fortified foods.
Define estimated energy requirement
Average energy intake that maintains energy balance and healthy weight of a person.

Actual vs. calculated requirement can vary significantly and highly individualized based on the person.
List 6 factors the estimated energy requirement must account for.
- Age
- Gender
- Height
- Weight
- Body composition
- Level of physical activity
What are the ranges of energy recommendations for the macro-nutrients?
- 45-65% kcal from carbohydrate
- 20-35% kcal from fats
- 10-35% kcal from protein
What type of people do the nutrient guidelines apply to? what type of people must they be adjusted for?
- Values apply to healthy people.

- Must be adjusted for malnourished individuals, restricted diets, certain chronic illnesses, etc.
Is the recommended daily allowance the minimal value needed?
No, most RDA values considered optimal for > 98% of population.
What may allow for personalized recommended daily allowance in the future?
Genomics
Through what types of foods should the goals of the recommended daily allowance be met?
Goals intended to be met through a variety of foods
How long does it take to develop deficiency symptoms of a nutrient?
Varies by nutrient
How many countries have published recommendations similar to RDA? And can you find them?
- About 50 countries have their own published recommendations.

- Food and Agricultural World Organization and World Health Organization have published values.
List 4 types of data that a registered dietitian might collect for an individual nutrition assessment
- Historical information
- Anthropometric data
- Physical Exam - eyes, hair, nails, tongue, posture, etc.
- Laboratory tests
Name 3 factors of historical information
- Health status and history – must include family history to consider genetics
- Socioeconomic status
- Drug history - prescription, over the counter and illicit drugs
Name some characteristics of socioeconomic status
- Ability to purchase food and maintain adequate intake
- Marital status, ethnic background and education status
What are three ways that anthropometric data is measured?
- Height and weight, which is then compare to published tables.
- Circumferences, which is then compare to published tables.
- Percent body fat
What care three common places to take circumference measurements for anthropometric data?
Head, waist and hips
List four ways to measure percent body fat
- Weight and measurement ratios. These can be highly inaccurate.

- Calipers to measure thickness of skin .

- Bioelectrical impedance – measures amount of fat.

- Hydrodensitometry
Name the three stages in development of a nutrient deficiency.
1. Body is not obtaining enough of a nutrient due to primary or secondary deficiency.
2. Declining nutrient stores (subclinical) or covert symptoms.
3. Overt physical signs
What is the difference between a primary and secondary deficiency?
- Primary deficiency is due to a lack of intake

- Secondary deficiency is caused by disease.
How do you detect that the body is not obtaining enough not a nutrient?
Diet history or medical history
How are declining nutrient stores detected?
Laboratory tests
How are the overt physical signs of nutrient deficiency detected?
Physical exam and/or anthropometric measures.
What does the National Nutrition Monitoring Program do?
Assesses the nutrition of the US population
What two surveys were used to assess the nutrition of the US population?
- US Department of Agriculture (USDA) – kind and amount of food people eat + analysis

- Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) – anthropometric measurements, physical exams and lab tests
Name 3 uses of surverys
- Guide government policies and laws

- Set direction for future research

- Food industry: public relations and development of new products
List 3 national trends and the net result of them
- More meals eaten away from home, particularly fast foods.
- Consuming larger portions.
- Consuming more empty kcals.

- Net result = pending epidemic obesity
Is is safe to use the Internet as a source for nutritional information?
Sometimes, depending on the site.

- no guarantee of accuracy, Generally, there is more misinformation than correct information.
- good sources = PubMed or National Library of Medicine or Natural Standard from the VCOM electronic library
How well do common news sources work in representing accurate nutritional information?
- Often sensationalize legitimate studies or prematurely jump on scientific data or even hypothesis. Can present new finding as breakthrough even if only one part of overall picture.

- Plagued by lack of knowledge, tight deadlines, desires for “exclusive stories” etc.

- Magazines in particular often swayed by advertisers.
Why are physician sometimes not the best sources for nutritional information?
Only 30% of medical school curriculums offer a dedicated nutrition course and over half of these are less than 25 hours
What is the difference between a registered dietician and a registered dietetic technician
registered dietetic technician are trained to work under a registered dietician and must have passed a national exam
What does the training of a registered dietician involve, and where can they work?
- Training: 4 year degree from accredited institution, 1 year clinical internship, pass Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics national exam, CME (continuing medical education) required

- Can work in a variety of settings.
Ex. food and pharm industry, home health agencies, long term care, private practices, public health agencies, etc.
Name 2 characteristics of credentials that are often bogus
- Often a 6 month correspondence course or simply a diploma.

- Often cite a bogus accrediting agency
Name some red flags to recognize bogus nutritional claims
- Natural
- Quick and easy fixes
- Satisfaction guaranteed
- Time tested
- Paranoid accusations
- Personal testimonies
- Dr. X says …..
- Meaningless jargon
List 5 diet planning principles
1. Adequacy
2. Balance
3. Nutrient density
4. Moderation
5. Variety
Define adequacy
Providing all essential nutrients, fiber and energy in amounts sufficient to maintain health
Define balance
Providing food in proportion to each other and in proportion to the body’s needs
Ex: protein sources - meats high in iron but low in calcium while dairy products low in iron but high in calcium
Define nutrient density
Amount of nutrients a food provides relative to the amount of kcals it provides. Sometimes thought of as an “energy allowance”
How much calories or nutrients do empty kcal foods provide?
Plenty of calories but few nutrients
What is discretionary kcal allowance?
The kcals remaining in a person’s energy allowance after consuming enough nutrient dense foods to meet all nutrient needs.
Added fats and sugars always considered discretionary kcals.
For a piece of fried chicken, where do the discretionary and non-discretionary kcals come from?
- skin + frying oil = discretionary kcals

- meat = non-discretionary kcals
Define moderation
Not eating too much of a particular food
Define variety and 2 effects of good variety.
- Eating a wide selection of food within a particular food group

Effects: improves adequacy and prevents too much of a single contaminant
List 3 BASIC diet planning principles
- My pyramid
- Dietary Guidelines for Americans
- Diet planning
List the 7 components of the MyPyramid
- Stairs
- Grains
- Vegetables
- Fruits
- Oils
- Milk and dairy products
- Meats and beans
What do the stairs on the MyPyramid represent?
moderate daily physical activity coupled with diet (for first time on food pyramid)
What are some grains, and what type are preferred?
- Wheat, oats, rice, barley, etc.

What types:
- Half or more should be whole grain
- Use enriched products when whole grains not used
- Limit baked goods, pastries, sweetened cereal, pancakes, etc
List 4 types of vegetables and which you should limit.
1. Dark green - broccoli, spinach, dark lettuce and greens
2. Orange and deep yellow - carrots, pumpkin, sweet potato, winter squash
3. Legumes - beans, most peas, soy products
4. Starchy - corn, potato
5. Other - asparagus, bean sprouts, cucumbers, green beans, mushrooms, tomatoes, zucchini, etc.

-Limit: french fries, potato salad, coleslaw, baked beans, scalloped potatoes, etc
how much of your daily fruit serving comes from fruit juices, and which type should you limit?
- Only ¼ from fruit juices

- Limit: canned fruit in syrup, fruit drinks, punches, etc
What types of milk and dairy products should you use and which should you limit?
- Use fat free products
- Limit even low fat products, and milk products with added sugar
What types of meats and beans should you limit?
Limit chicken skin, fried meats, processed meats, fatty meat cuts, bacon, etc
How often is the Dietary Guidelines for Americans published?
Published every 5 years
List the 3 goals of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010
- Balance calories with physical activity to manage weight.

- Consume more of certain foods and nutrients such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fat-free and low-fat dairy products, and seafood

- Consume fewer foods with sodium, saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, and refined grains
What do exchange systems do?
Organize foods by their proportions of energy nutrients
What are the groupings of the food groups in exchange groups?
Starches, fruits, milk, other carbohydrates, vegetables, meats, fats and alcohol
How do exchange systems work?
- Use of diet plan to determine allowed number of servings from each group
- Foods within each group are interchangeable
What are phytochemicals?
Biologically active compounds of plants believed to confer health benefits
List 2 types of phytochemicals
- Antioxidants
- Phytoestrogens
What are antioxidants thought to help with?
Cancer or heart disease
List 3 functions of phytoestrogens
1. Mimic or antagonize estrogen function
2. Compete with cholesterol for absorption in GI tract
3. Highest concentrations in nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads.
*Some forms due to probiotics of large intestine.
Why are supplements not recommended as phytochemicals?
- Studies proving their effectiveness lacking
- A food may contain thousands of phytochemicals, not just one I isolation
- Some phytochemicals interfere with absorption of other nutrients
- Some phytochemicals interfere with drug action
List 3 safe ways to consume more phytochemicals
- Consume extra servings of fruits and vegetables
- Liberal use of herbs and spices
- Use of grated vegetables
List the 4 basic principles of digestion
1. Ingested foods must be kept moving at a pace that allows maximal digestion and absorption
2. Digestion requires enzymatic access to all food molecules. Must precede absorption.
3. Digestive organs do not auto-digest themselves
4. Any food material not digested excreted as stool
List 2 ways digestive system organs prevent auto-digestion
1. Mucous – can provide protective barrier from enzymes. 2. Digestive enzyme only activated in time of use

(even with protective mechanisms >> high endothelial turnover in stomach and small intestine)
What is a zymogen?
inactive form of a digestive enzyme
How do zymogens get activated?
1. Pancreatic enzymes released into duodenum as zymogens
2. Enterokinase activates trypsinogen to trypsin
3. Trypsin activates other zymogens of pancreatic juice
What are the 2 forms of digestion?
1. Mechanical digestion
2. Enzymatic digestion
What is the purpose of mechanical digestion?
used to break bulk food into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzyme action
What are the two components of mechanical digestion?
1. Grinding of food by teeth
2. Churning action of stomach
What does grinding of food by teeth do?
mixes enzymes and food
what does the churning action of stomach do?
utilizes hydrochloric acid to liquefy food
How is the food maintained between the teeth during grinding?
tongue
Why does only liquefied food enter the duodenum?
allows all molecules to be accessed by enzymes following emulsification with bile
List 2 functions of hydrochloric acid
- Liquefy food
- Sterilize food
What enzymes are in the mouth?
salivary amylase and lipase
What enzymes are in the stomach?
pepsinogen activated to pepsin (protease)
What enzymes are in the small intestine?
1. Pancreatic juice contains amylases, proteases and lipases in an alkaline solution.

2. :ipases, disaccharidases and lipases also found as glycoproteins in epithelial cell membranes. Digestion is coupled to absorptive machinery.

3. Intestinal secretions include lysozyme and sodium bicarbonate
What enzymes are in the large intestine?
Enzymes of microbes digest fibers
List 3 ways food moves through the GI tract
1. Peristalsis
2. Segmentation
3. Lubrication
Define peristalsis
wavelike muscular contractions that propel contents through the GI tract
What substance are lipids soluble and insoluble in?
insoluble in aqueous solutions and soluble in organic solvents
List the 3 major forms of Lipids
- Phospholipids
- Cholesterol
- Triglycerides
What is a phospholipid composed of?
glycerol, 2 fatty acids and polar group such as choline
what is lecithin?
A phospholipid often used as an emulsifier in processed foods
what are triglycerides composed of?
glycerol and 3 fatty acids
List 4 general functions of Lipids
1. Structural components of biological membranes
2. Daily energy usage (60%) + reserves. Comes mostly from triglycerides.
3. Derivatives acts as biologically active molecules exerting a wide range of functions
4. Cholesterol derived bile acids aid in lipid emulsification
What is the structure of fatty acids?
Long-chain hydrocarbon molecules containing a carboxylic acid moiety.
Range in length from 4 to 24 carbons (even numbers only) with 18 being the most common
What are the two types of fatty acids?
Saturated and unsaturated
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? Where are they mostly found?
- saturated fatty acids: contain all single bonds. More common in animal foods.

- Unsaturated fatty acids: contain double bond(s). Monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids unsaturation exists. More common in plant foods.
What two factors influence the fluidity of fatty acids?
1. Saturation, saturated fatty acids less fluid.

2. Length of carbon chain, long carbon chains less fluid and 10 carbons or more will be solids at body temperature
What is the goal of digestion of triglycerides?
Goal is to produce monoglycerides and two fatty acids. Sometimes all three fatty acids removed producing glycerol.
How are triglycerides broken down in the mouth?
1. Body temperature begins to melt some fats
2. Lingual lipase – produced by serous glands located in the base of the tongue. It is able to pass through acidic stomach without denaturation, and it plays a major role in infants but only minor role in adults.
How are triglycerides broken down in the stomach?
1. Churning action disperses fats into smaller droplets
2. gastric lipase – minor action
How are triglycerides broken down in the small intestine?
1. In response to fats in lumen enteroendocrine cells release CCK this signals gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release lipases
2. Bile - emulsifies fats so that they can be digested by dissolves enzymes
3. Membrane bound small intestine lipases also active
4. Triglycerides digested to monoglycerol + 2 fatty acids
5. Sterols are absorbed without being digested
How is bile formed?
1. Primary bile acids formed via cytochrome P-450 oxidation of cholesterol
2. Bacteria flora of large intestine dehydroxylate primary bile acids to form secondary bile acids
3. Liver can add glycine or taurine to all primary or secondary bile acids to form conjugated bile salts
4. Net result = all 12 molecules present which have varying degrees of solubility to emulsify dietary lipids
What are the 2 fates of bile salts?
1. Enterohepatic circulation – can be resorbed and recycled to liver
2. Can attach to dietary fibers and carried out of body with stool
List 3 ways that Lipids are absorbed
1. Glycerol and short chain fatty acids – diffuse through mucosal cells and directly into bloodstream
2. Monoglycerides and long chain fatty acids – form micelles for transport into mucosal cells
3. Lymph delivers chylomicrons to bloodstream in subclavian vein. Bypass initial screening by liver.
What happens to lipids within the mucosal cells?
1. Reassembled into triglycerides
2. Packaged into chylomicrons
3. Released into lacteals
What is a lipoprotein?
Lipid/protein complexes that function as transport vehicles for lipids in blood and lymph
List the 4 types of lipoproteins.
1. Chylomicrons
2. Very low density lipoproteins
3. Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
4. High density lipoproteins
How do chylomicrons function?
1. packaged by mucosal cells of small intestine. Ships dietary lipids (mostly triglycerides) to cells of the body.
2. Most triglycerides depleted after 12-14 hours. Remnants then recycled by liver.
Which lipoprotein is the largest and least dense?
Chylomicrons
How do very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) function?
1. Liver synthesizes triglycerides and cholesterol from other lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and ethanol
2. Liver packages and releases these lipids as VLDLs
3. Cells remove lipids from VLDLs forming intermediate density lipoproteins (IDLs), cells remove more lipids forming LDL.
How do low density lipoproteins (LDLs) function?
1. Represent left over lipids (mainly cholesterol) that cells do not want
2. Can be removed from circulation and recycled by the liver
How do high density lipoproteins function?
Part of scavenger pathway – produced and released by liver. Cells of body add lipids and then “full” HDLs removed and recycled by liver
Which lipoprotein is considered good cholesterol, and which is your bad?
- Low density lipoproteins (LDLs) = bad cholesterol
- High density lipoproteins = good cholesterol
List some strategies to increase HDLs and lower LDLs
- Obtain optimal weight
- Stay physically active
- Substitute poly- and monounsaturated triglycerides for saturated triglycerides
- Increase consumption of soluble fiber
- Increase consumption of phytochemicals
- Consume a glass of wine per day
What is the function of phospholipids?
Components of cells membranes
What are the effected of saturated fatty acids on cholesterol?
Increases it
What is the function of cholesterol?
Components of cells membranes, modified into certain hormones and other messengers, bile salts + more
What are the 4 functions of triglycerides?
1. Energy storage
2. Spare proteins from energy metabolism
3. Thermal insulation
4. Mechanical insulation
Which two fatty acids are essential for humans?
linolenic and linoleic fatty acids
What is the function of linoleic acid? How do we obtain it?
- used to make all other omega-6 fatty acids. Arachidonic acid most prominent omega-6.
- easily obtained in U.S. diet from vegetable oils and meats
What is the function of linolenic acid?
used to make all omega-3 fatty acids
Name 2 prominent omega 3's and what they're used for
- Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA)

Used for:
- Essential for growth and development. Particularly for brain and eyes.
- May be important in immune response and treatment of heart disease. Anti-inflammatory effect.
What are some sources for linolenic acid?
- Fatty fish (salmon, herring , sardines, etc.) – high in EPA and DHA
- Flaxseed and other oils high in lenolenic acid. High fat diet inhibits conversion of lenolenic acid to EPA and DHA.
Do we need more omega 3's or omega 6's in our diet?
Omega 3's
Are fatty acid deficiencies common in the US and Canada?
no
Where would you find fatty acid deficiencies?
- Infants/toddler fed fat free milk
- IV fed hospital patients mistakenly not given polyunsaturated fats for a prolonged period
What are some symptoms of fatty acid deficiencies?
- Growth retardation
- Reproductive failure
- Skin lesions
- Kidney disorders + subtle neurological and visual disorders
What is the kink between omega 3's and depression?
A link exists but we're not sure if it is a cause or an effect
What are 2 uses of triglycerides?
1. Storage as body fat
2. Usage for energy
how are triglycerides stored as body fat?
- Adipose tissue = virtually unlimited energy storage capacity
- lipoprotein lipase – enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in lipoprotein to yield monoglycerides and 2 fatty acids which is able to enter adipose cells and then be reassembled
How is triglyceride used for energy?
- Hormone sensitive lipase – enzyme within adipose cells that hydrolyzes triglycerides to yield glycerol + 3 fatty acids which is then released into bloodstream for use by other cells.
How much energy comes from triglycerides, and how much energy is in 1 pound of fat?
- Supplies 60% of resting energy needs. Larger percentage at other times such as exercise or fasting.
- 1lb. fat = 3500 kcal
What are the health effects of lipids? What is recommended?
- Linked to heart disease, some cancers and obesity.

- Recommend decreasing saturated fats, trans fats and cholesterol + moderation of fat intake
Relate heart disease to cholesterol and triglycerides
- Blood cholesterol strongly linked to heart disease
- Dietary saturated triglycerides largest factor in raising blood cholesterol
What risk is associated with saturated fats?
-Strongest factor in elevating LDLs
Ex: lauric, myristic and palmitic acids (12, 14 and 16 carbons) elevate blood cholesterol levels
What is the most common saturated fat and what is its effect on the heart?
- stearic acid (18 carbons) most common
- may decrease cholesterol
What kind of saturated fats are most common from animal sources?
most saturated fats from animal sources, except coconut and palm oils, are saturated but have shorter carbon chains
What are some ideas to consume less saturated fats?
- Trim fats from meats
- Leaner cuts of meat or substitute poultry
- Non-fat dairy products
- Non-hydrogenated margarine + use of polyunsaturated cooking oils
- Fat substitutes
What risks are associated with trans fats? and What can we do about it?
- Linked to heart disease
- Raise LDLs and decrease HDLs

We should avoid hydrogenated processed foods
How much cholesterol is in each egg and why is this important?
each egg has 200mg of cholesterol which is 2/3 of recommended daily limit
What is the only source of cholesterol for humans?
animal food sources
Is it more important to decrease intake of cholesterol of saturated fats?
saturated fats since they can produce cholesterol in the body
What are some healthy ways to eat eggs?
1. Use of egg whites without yolk
2. Use of egg substitutes
3. eggs from chickens fed flax seed diet has decreased cholesterol and increased omega 3 fatty acids
What is the butter vs. margarine dilemma?
Butter has saturated fats, while margarine has trans fats.
What are the benefits of mono and polyunsaturated fats?
unsaturated does not make cholesterol in the body. Used in Mediterranean diet.
What are the benefits of omega 3 fatty acids?
- Decreased risk of heart disease and stroke. It prevents blood clots + decreased blood pressure particularly in people with hypertension or atherosclerosis.

recommendation of 2 servings of fatty fish per week
What are some ways to balance omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids?
- Decrease meats (particularly red meats) while increasing fatty fish
- Use of nonconventional sources of omega 3 fatty acids such as pasture feed beef or eggs from flaxseed fed hens
- omega 3 pills generally provide mega doses which causes increased clotting time, increased LDLs, decreased immune function
What is the relationship between lipids and cancer?
saturated fats from meats firmly linked to certain types of cancer. They don't promote the cancer but they help it grow.
How does obesity relate to fat intake? How well does cutting fat intake work?
- increased fat intake significantly increased kcals

- Cutting fat intake effective in cutting kcal intake if labels closely read. Ex: some fat free deserts have greatly increased sugar content and even more kcal that the fat containing version.
What are the recommended intakes of fats, linolenic and linleic acid, saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol?
- 20-35% of daily kcals from fats
- 10% linolenic and 0.6-1.2 % linoleic
- Maximum of 10% from saturated fats
- Decrease trans fats as much as possible
- 300 mg cholesterol
Typically, who are concerned about consuming too little fat and what is recommended for them?
- Only a problem for athletes with highly elevated kcal needs or those with eating disorders
- Recommendation is to include equivalent of 1 tsp fat per meal
What stimulates peristalsis and how is it modified?
- stimulus is stretch of the lumenal wall
- modified via parasympathetic or hormonal input
What kind of reflex is peristalsis?
intrinsic reflex with all components contained within wall of organ
What does segmentation appear as and what is its function?
- Appears as disrupted peristalsis

Functions:
- Churns chime within duodenum
- promotes mixing of food with pancreatic juices
- increases contact of food molecules with epithelial cell membrane
What type of movement is lubrication involved in?
frictionless movement
How does lubrication of food take place?
- Mucous component of saliva lubricates semisolid bolus through esophagus with esophagus also producing more mucous
- Copious goblet cells in ilium and large intestine provide lubrication as water is removed to produce a semisolid stool
what are the 4 control mechanisms of GI function?
1. Secretion of saliva
2. Secretion of gastric juice
3. Control of pyloric sphincter
4. Release of pancreatic juice
What are two ways saliva is released?
- Bulk released by chewing action
- Minor amounts released via smell and thoughts
Describe the feedback system of gastric juice
1. Enteroendocrine cells release gastrin
2. Indirectly stimulates chief cells and parietal cells to release gastric juice
3. This causes a lower pH in stomach, which acts as negative feedback to cease gastrin release
List two ways to release gastric juices
1. Enteroendocrine cells
2. Parasympathic nervous system and stretch of stomach wall also activate release of gastric juices
How does gastrin relate to motility?
gastrin acts to increase stomach motility
What causes the pyloric sphincter to open and close?
1. Opens slightly during churning action of stomach to allow liquefied chyme to enter duodenum
2. Cells on distal side of pyloric sphincter sense lowered pH which causes the pyloric sphincter to close
3. Sodium bicarbonate solution from pancreatic juice raises pH in duodenum, allowing the pyloric sphincter to re-open
How is bicarbonate solution released?
The decreased pH from chyme causes enteroendocrine cells to release secretin which causes the release of bicarbonate solution from pancreatic duct cells
What is the function of bicarbonate solution?
bicarbonate solution elevates pH and acts as a negative feedback that ceases release of secretin
What happens when fat and/or protein enters the duodenum?
enteroendocrine cells release cholecystokinin (CCK)
List the 3 effects of the release of cholecystokinin (CCK)
1. Causes acinar cells of pancreas release zymogen forms of proteases, lipases and amylases. Which is later activated by cell membrane proteins of duodenum.

2. Causes relaxation of sphincter of Oddi allowing bile to enter the small intestine

3. Release of second hormone called enterogastrone which causes decreased GI motility, allowing more time for fat and protein digestion.
How does the body know to stop releasing cholecystokinin (CCK)?
absorption of fats and proteins turns off signal for CCK secretion
About how many gastrointestinal bacteria, what can affect these numbers?
About 400 species, diet affects number and diversity
Where do most gastrointestinal bacteria live and why?
most live in the large intestine due to neutral pH + slow peristalsis
What do gastrointestinal microbes digest and what do they produce?
- Microbes digest food materials that humans lack enzymes to digest. From a dietary perspective this would be primarily fibers.

- Produce short chain fatty acids that are absorbed by mucosa
- Also, release some vitamins and minerals that are absorbed
how can gastrointestinal bacteria be toxic?
some prokaryotic enzymes can activate other non-absorbed molecules, converting them to carcinogens or other toxins
What are probiotics?
Living microorganisms in food that when consumed are beneficial to health.
What happens when probiotics get past the acidic stomach ?
can colonize large intestine
What are prebiotics?
food materials that are acted upon by gut bacteria with subsequent product release
List 8 common digestive problems.
1. Choking
2. Vomiting
3. Diarrhea
4. Constipation
5. Belching
6. Flatulence
7. Gastroesophageal reflux
8. Ulcers
Define choking
food becomes lodged in trachea cutting off air supply
What does the Heimlich maneuver do?
forces air out of lungs and blows lodged food upward. Helping someone who is choking.
Why do people vomit?
body’s reaction to rid stomach of irritating substance. It activates higher centers within the brain.
What medical concern is associated with vomiting?
fluid and electrolyte loss
What is the first order of treatment for someone who is vomiting?
rest and consume small volumes of liquids as tolerated
Why is vomiting in infant more of a concern?
Infants have a smaller percentage of body weight and they reply on their body water for maintenance of body temperature
Why does prolonged vomiting require medical treatment?
to prevent dehydration
What are the 6 effects of prolonged self-induced vomiting?
1. Salt and fluid imbalance
2. Irritation and infection of upper GI tract
3. Erosion of teeth and gum leading to dental caries
4. Potential rupture of esophagus and/or stomach
5. Potential broken blood vessels in eye/brain
What is diarrhea?
frequent, loose, watery stools
What causes diarrhea?
- due to material moving too rapidly through the large intestine and/or osmotic pressure drawing water into fecal material

- can occur with some food additives such as sorbitol or olestra
What is the medical concern with diarrhea?
fluid and electrolyte loss
What is constipation?
Inability to have a bowel movement. Results in hard stools when bowel movement becomes possible.

Even minor constipation can aggravate hemorrhoids.
What factors control the urge to defecate?
1. Circadian rhythm
2. Increased peristalsis following a meal
3. Defection signal which will subside without a bowel movement
4. Other controlling factors = health of individual, type of food consumed, timing of meals and physical exercise
How often do most individuals defecate?
from 3/day to 1 every 3 days
What are 4 ways to help naturally control constipation?
1. Maintain regular eating at sleeping habits
2. Consume a leisurely breakfast and obey urge to defecate
3. Exercise
4. Gradually increase fiber content of diet
What is prolonged constipation a sign of?
a serious medical issues such as colitis or irritable bowel syndrome (IRB)
What causes belching?
- Swallowing air with food.

- Other causes: ill-fitting dentures, carbonated beverages and chewing gum
How can one alleviate belching?
eating more slowly
What can belching be a symptom of?
gallbladder disease or peptic ulcer
What is flatulence produced by?
bacterial action of undigested food within the large intestine
How much intestinal gas does an average person produce per day, and how much is odorless?
Average person produced 350 ml per day of intestinal gas with 99% odorless
What food sources most commonly causes flatulence?
fiber sources
How can someone produce a tolerance for foods that causes flatulence for them?
eating such foods in moderation
Why do different food item cause people flatulence during different periods of their life?
composition of intestinal flora changes over lifespan which causes changes in foods that cause flatulence
What is the gastroesophageal reflux?
Painful sensation behind sternum when the gastroesophageal sphincter allows acids contents of the stomach to enter the esophagus. Commonly referred to as heart burn.
What are some causes of a gastroesophageal reflux?
- typically due to eating too much or lying down after eating

- Other causes:smoking or medications, late pregnancy or an anatomical defect
Why should over the counter remedies should be used sparingly in response to the gastroesophageal reflux?
can mask more severe problems and/or have unwanted side effects
What are ulcers?
lesions in lining of the GI tract
Where are ulcers commonly located?
most common are gastric and duodenal ulcers, with esophageal ulcers sometimes seen
Where are ulcers most commonly located?
most common are gastric and duodenal ulcers, with esophageal ulcers sometimes seen
What happens if ulcers are left untreated?
Could develop into a bleeding ulcer or perforated ulcer
What happens if ulcers are left untreated?
Could develop into a bleeding ulcer or perforated ulcer
What are 3 major causes of ulcers?
1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Use of certain anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen or naproxen
3. Diseases that cause excessive hydrochloric acid secretion
What are 3 major causes of ulcers?
1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Use of certain anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen or naproxen.
3. Diseases that cause excessive hydrochloric acid secretion.
What are 3 ways to treat ulcers?
1. Prescription drugs or lack of drug causing ulcer
2. Avoid foods that aggravate symptoms
3. Avoid nicotine, caffeine and ethanol
What are 3 ways to treat ulcers?
1. Prescription drugs or lack of drug causing ulcer
2. Avoid foods that aggravate symptoms
3. Avoid nicotine, caffeine and ethanol
What are 2 general types of carbohydrates?
- Simple sugars
- Complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides
Monoaccharides and polysaccharides are two types of what?
simple sugars
What are 3 types of monosaccharaides and 3 types of polysaccharides?
Monosaccharaides:
- Fructose
- Glucose
- Galactose

Polysaccharides:
- Lactose
- Maltose
- Sucrose
What is fructose, where is it found and what does it do?
Fructose is a monosaccharide found in fruits, honey and products sweetened with high fructose corn syrup. It makes food taste sweet.
What is the main metabolic sugar in the body, and how is it formed?
Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main metabolic sugar in the body. Most monosaccharaides get converted to glucose within the bosy
What is galactose?
digestion product of lactose
What is lactose and how is it formed?
Lactose is milk sugar which is the condensation product of glucose and galactose
What are two ways to produce maltose?
- Condensation of two glucose molecules
- Digestion of starch
What is typically referred to as table sugar and why does it taste sweet?
Sucrose, tastes sweet due to fructose component
List 3 carbohydrates or polysaccharides
- Starch
- Glycogen
- Fiber
What is starch and what is it used for?
Starch is a glucose polymer used by plants for long term energy storage, it is also a major dietary component. Also used as food thickener.
What are two forms of starch and what is the difference between them?
1. Amylose - non-branching coiled molecule
2. Amylopectin - branched glucose polymer
What are some properties of of starch?
white, tasteless, odorless powder
How does glycogen differ from glucose and starch, how much is found within the diet?
Glycogen is the animal storage form of glucose.
It is similar to starch but more branched and has longer chains.
Minimal amounts found within diet.
What is the structural material found in plants called?
Fiber
What is the structure of most fibers?
- Most fibers are polymers of glucose
- contain Beta rather than alpha bonds between glucose moieties
cant fiber be digested by humans?
no
List some examples of fibers
cellulose, hemicellulose, chitin, waxes, lignin, etc
What are two types of fibers?
soluble or insoluble
Name one use of fibers
Can be added to processed foods as a thickener
how much carbohydrates in an average persons diet come from plants?
only appreciable amounts come from plant sources
How are monosaccharides consumed?
only fructose consumed in significant amounts
How are disaccharides consumed?
must be broken down to monosaccharaides by membrane bound enzymes of villi in small intestine
What produces Salivary amylase, and what does it do?
produced by parotid gland, begins the digestion of starch
What does Pancreatic amylase do?
It is a major digestive enzyme for starch, after salivary amylase continues to shorten glucose chains to produce maltose
where is Maltase found and what does it do?
It is a component of cell membrane on villi. It functions to digests maltose into two glucose molecules that can then be absorbed.
How does soluble fiber act on the body's water?
attracts water becoming more viscous
What happens if someone eats a lot of soluble fiber but drinks no water?
can cause constipation
How is soluble fiber digested and what does it produce?
- Readily digested by fauna of the large intestine that have the enzyme Beta-amylase.
-Do to the anaerobic environment, methane and other gasses are produced.
- Also releases short chain fatty acids which are absorbed by the large intestine
- Also a significant source of vitamin K
What happens to insoluble fiber in the body?
- It does not attract water and not appreciably broken down by endogenous bacteria
- Provide non-digestible bulk in stomach, causing the feeling of being full
- Provide bulk in waste material leading to increased rate of peristalsis and softer stool
What happens to resistant starches within the body?
have alpha-linkages but are not readily digested >> act like fiber
Do plant foods contain mostly soluble or insoluble fibers?
most plant foods contain varying degrees of both soluble and insoluble fibers
List 6 health benefits of fiber?
1. Lower blood cholesterol - because it binds to cholesterol and bile salts preventing absorption
2. Retard absorption of glucose - this helps in regulating blood glucose levels
3. Potentially lowers the risk of colon cancer
4. Provide satiety without adding calories
5. Alleviates constipation
6. High fiber foods typically nutrient dense
What is satiety?
Feeling that you're full
What is the only food sources that provides fibers for humans?
plants
What is the difference between a fruit and a vegetable?
- Fruits – develop from a flower
- Vegetables – leaf, root of stem of a plant
Why are some fruits classified as vegetables?
based on their nutritional value
What staple food has high nutrient values of both starch and fiber?
grains
What is a chaff?
dry, scaly outer covering of grains
What is a bran? What is it a good source of?
-Shell of a wheat kernel
- Major source of fiber + several nutrients
Why do some people not like bran even though it is a good source of fiber
It is very tough and requires a lot of chewing, also the rough texture viewed as undesirable
What is the germ of a grain?
portion of seed that develop into a new plant
What is the endosperm of a grain, and what is its function?
It is the starch component of seed , and it provides nourishment to germ
Describe the historical milling process
Grind between two stones. Removed chaff only which is then separated from the rest of the seed.
Describe the historical milling process
The grain is refined removing the chaff, bran and germ. The endosperm is then bleached for whiteness and softness
What did the U.S. Enrichment Act of 1942 do?
In the early years of refining, refined grain products severely lacking in nutrients. This Act called for enrichment procedures to be standard.
Compared to whole grain breads, what is still missing in refined breads?
fiber + several nutrients
What does "whole grain" on a products label determine?
flour composition
How is glucose and galactose absorbed?
- Actively transported into mucosa cells of the small intestine
- Absorbed rapidly
- Finally, rapidly placed into the bloodstream

(small amounts of glucose actually absorbed across oral mucosa)
How is fructose absorbed? How fast?
- Absorbed by mucosa cells of small intestine via facilitated diffusion.
- Not absorbed as fast as glucose or galactose
How is starch absorbed? How fast??
- Starch must be digested to glucose monomers by pancreatic and membrane-bound enzymes in order to be absorbed
- This is slow absorption
Why is amylose digested more slowly than amylopectin?
Amylose contains fewer 1’ ends on which digestive enzymes can function
What causes lactose intolerance?
Dysfunction of lactase
What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
nausea, bloating, diarrhea and gas upon consuming milk products
What process leads to the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
- Osmosis causes water to leave intestinal tissues into lumen.
- Lactose cannot diffuse in such a manner and is fermented by bacteria of large intestine
What allergic reaction is often mistaken for lactose intolerance?
Allergic reaction to caseins
What is lactose persistence?
lactase activity remains after weaning
What happens to lactose tolerance with age?
About 75% of adults show decrease lactose tolerance with age with varying degrees of intolerance
What are 6 strategies lactose intolerant individuals can follow since it plays an essential role dietary calcium?
1. Children most at risk >> require calcium fortified milk substitute
2. Level of intolerance should determined
3. Aged cheese tolerated as bacteria ferment the lactose
4. Yogurt introduces lactose utilizing bacteria
5. Consume milk only with a meal
6. Lactose-free milk or milk substitutes readily available or individuals can add lactase
A lactose free diets difficult to obtain, where are some other places lactose is found?
1. Breads, cereals, salad dressing, cake mixes, etc.
2. Found in 20% of prescription drugs plus some OTC drugs as a filler
3. Must read labels for milk products, whey and casein
What are 2 uses of carbohydrate in the body?
- Energy
- Carbon source for synthesis of other biomolecules
What are 2 storage forms of carbohydrate?
- Glycogen
- Triglycerides
What is the difference between glycogen and triglycerides in terms of storage?
Glycogen is filled first. Triglycerides are filled after glycogen stores will up. Also triglycerides are for long term storage and their storage capacity is not limited.
How are blood glucose levels maintained?
homeostatically
Which cells use 75% of glucose? Are are some other consumers of glucose?
- Brain cells use 75%
- Skeletal and heart muscle + erythrocytes are also consumers
Can triglycerides cross the blood brain barrier?
no
What are 3 ways that blood glucose levels are maintained?
- liver glycogen
- gluconeogenesis
- ketosis
How long do liver glycogen stores last?
8-12 hours
What are two sources of sugar in the American diet?
- Natural sugars from milk, fruits, vegetables and grains >> approximately ½ of daily sugar intake
- Added sugars
Describe the trend of added sugars
Consumption rising of past three decades. Soft drinks and sugared fruit drinks responsible for most of this increase
List some sugars on food labels
sucrose, corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), invert sugar, corn sweeteners, dextrose, levulose, honey, etc
What are 5 reasons reasons for use of sugar as an additive?
1. enhanced taste
2. adds texture and color to baked goods
3. bulking agent in ice cream
4. preservative in jams
5. balances acidity in tomato and vinegar based foods
What are 4 health effects of sugars?
1. In moderation, can add pleasure to meals without harming health
2. Causes nutrient deficiencies
3. Source of excess calories
4. Causes dental caries
What types of calories is mostly present in sweets?
empty kcalories
What detrimental effect can empty kcalories have in a diet?
empty kcalories can displace other foods in diet
Roughly how many kcal does it take for an average adult to obtain their needed amount of nutrients?
About 1500 kcals
What are discretionary kcals?
individuals with higher kcal needs have more room for empty kcal foods, these empty kcals are called discretionary kcals
What happens to excess calories?
once glycogen stores are full, excess sugars are converted to triglycerides for long term energy storage
How are dental caries formed?
- Beings with anaerobic glycolysis of glucose in an oral cavity an anaerobic environment. Causes pyruvic or lactic acid buildup, leading to caries.
How do liquid factors influence formation of caries?
The acidic pH of soft drinks, orange juice and sports drinks can erode and thin tooth enamel
What is a major food factor influencing formation of caries? Is this more of a concern with sticky foods or sugary drinks?
-How long the sugary (or starchy) food remains within the mouth

- This is more of a concern with sticky foods or chewing gum because they typically remain in your mouth longer
What is bottle mouth syndrome?
caries caused by child falling asleep with bottle in mouth
What are some other factors influencing formation of caries? (Not food)
- bacteria present within dental plaque
- saliva
- minerals that form teeth
Is regular brushing and flossing more important in preventing caries or dietary restriction of sugary foods?
regular brushing and flossing more important
What disease is characterized by high glucose levels and inadequate and/or ineffective insulin?
diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a growing epidemic in U.S. of the Top 10 leading causes of death, where is it ranked?
6th leading cause of death
What are 4 effects of elevated blood glucose?
- Excess glucose non-enzymatically attaches to proteins leading to a loss of protein function
- Blurry vision from swelling of lens + cataract formation, also the leading cause of adult blindness
- risk of heart disease and stroke doubles
- Poor circulation
What are 3 effects of poor circulation due to diabetes mellitus
- kidney damage leading to kidney failure
- poor periphery circulation causing poor healing leading to gangrene, patient might need amputations
What is pre-diabetes?
elevated blood glucose but not to levels of diabetes, it is a major risk for future development of diabetes
At what age is it recommended to start testing for pre-diabetes
Testing recommended for anyone over age 45, and earlier if overweight
What are 3 forms of diabetes?
- Gestational
- Type 1
- Type 2
What type of diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which Beta-cells of pancreas are destroyed?
Type 1
What type of diabetes is associated with a genetic link and initiated by viral infection?
Type 1
Of all individuals with diabetes, how many have type 1?
5-10% of diabetics
What type of diabetes is insulin resistance where the liver, muscle and adipose tissues are less sensitive to insulin
Type 2
How is Type 2 diabetes linked to an eventual overload to Beta-cells resulting in a loss of insulin production?
Since the cells are less sensitive to insulin, you are left with a high blood sugar. The high blood sugar leads to elevated insulin levels which causes the overload
What are some risk factors for type 2 diabetes?
- Strongest risk factors = middle age, lack of exercise and obesity
- Other risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, lipid profiles, etc.
What type of diabetes is linked to diabetes?
Type 2
What are 3 to aid in management/ prevention of progression of pre-diabetes
- Exercise – causes cells to become more sensitive to insulin
- Weight control
- Proper nutrition
What types of nutritional steps should one take in management/ prevention of progression of pre-diabetes?
(4)
- Decreased fat intake, particularly saturated and trans fats
- Use of exchange system to control caloric intake
- Control glucose intake
- Increase fiber intake
Define hypoglycemia
low blood glucose levels
What is a common condition caused by diabetics administering too much insulin
hypoglycemia
What happens in postprandial hypoglycemia?
Extremely rare condition where an individual has low blood glucose levels following a meal causing fatigue, weakness, increased heart rate, headache, etc.
What happens in fasting hypoglycemia?
low blood glucose levels during fasting, due to liver or pancreas damage or medications
What is another name for sugar alternative which provide virtually 0 kcal?
non-nutritive sweeteners
Is it safe to use sugar alternatives?
all are safe at normal levels
What are the 7 main examples of non-nutritive sweeteners, and which is the oldest?
- Saccharin (Sweet N’ Low): oldest sweetener, used for over 100 years
- Aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)
- Acesulfame potassium (Sunnette)
- Sucralose (Splenda)
- Neotame
- Tagalose
- alitame and cyclamate: both submitted to FDA for approval
saccharin (Sweet N’ Low) is not metabolized in the body, what happens to it?
Readily secreted in urine
What are some uses of saccharin (Sweet N’ Low)?
primarily used in soft drinks, but also used as a table top sweetener
What were some of the safety concerns with saccharin (Sweet N’ Low)?
- A1977 study – rats fed equivalent of > 100 sodas/day/life showed higher incidence of bladder cancer.
- Caused FDA to ban saccharin however, Congress passed yearly legislation to allow it to remain on market
- Largest human studies show no increased risk for bladder cancer, although one study showed slight increased risk in smokers
What is aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) composed of?
methylated phenylalanine with aspartic acid
How is aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) metabolized, how much energy?
- Metabolized as 2 amino acids.
- It is sometimes mixed with lactose
- Breaks down under increased temperature or metabolism to yield methanol which is further metabolized to formaldehyde, toxic substances
- Provides up to 4 kcal /package of sweetener
Which sugar alternative can people with phenylketonuria not use?
aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)
If aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) metabolism leads to production of toxic substance, methanol and formaldehyde, why is it still on the market?
- Even with high usage, methanol and formaldehyde levels well below threshold
- Tomato juice 6X more methanol than diet soda
What is a mild concern with aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)?
Methanol and formaldehyde may lower seizure threshold in epileptics
Is acesulfame potassium (Sunnette) metabolized in the body, and how legal is it?
It is not metabolized in the body and it is approved in most countries
What is the structure of sucralose (Splenda)?
Sugar with three hydroxyl groups replaced by chlorine atoms
How stable is sucralose (Splenda) compared to sugar, and how stable is it?
much sweeter than sugar and extremely stable
What happens to sucralose (Splenda) within the body?
not absorbed, passed through GI tract
What is the structure of neotame?
aspartame with an additional side group added
Compare the sweetness and stability of neotame to that of aspartame
sweeter and more stable than aspartame
Is neotame safe for PKU patients?
Yes because it is not metabolized
What is the structure of tagalose and how is it produced?
- enantiomer of fructose
- produced commercially from whey
Where is tagalose found?
found naturally in a handful of foods
What happens to tagalose in the body?
- It is not metabolized by oral flora so it does not promote caries
- 80% remains unabsorbed and is metabolized by flora of large intestine
- short chain fatty acids produced and absorbed releasing 1.5 kcal/g
- increased usage leads to flatulence, rumbling and loose stools
- hailed as a probiotic that may benefit GI health
What is the current legal status of alitame and cyclamate?
- Alitame – widely approved in other countries
- Cyclamate – banned in 1969 based on flawed study showing increased risk for bladder cancer in mice. does not cause cancer but it may enhance carcinogenesis of other substances (no FDA guidelines for this).
.
What is acceptable daily intake (ADI), how is it given and where is typically set?
- ADI is the level of consumption considered to be safe.
- Given as mg/kg body weight/day/lifetime
- Typically at least 100X less level that can cause negative side effects
What are two other non-sugar sweeteners?
- Stevia
- Sugar alcohols
Where is Stevia derived from?
leaves of South American shrub, used by indigenous peoples for centuries
What is the legal status of Stevia, and how safe is it?
- Lacks enough research for FDA approval as a food additive so it is sold in health food stores as a dietary supplement
- Approved in Canada and recently (2011) approved in European Union
- Research has indicated some concerns, but probably little harm if used sparingly
What are two other names for sugar alcohols?
- Sugar replacers or nutritive sweeteners
- Often allow use of “sugar-free” labeling
What are a couple examples of sugar alcohols?
Mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, etc.
Compared to the absorption rate of sugar, what is the rate of absorption of sugar alcohols?
Absorbed more slowly than sugars
What are 2 uses of sugar alcohols?
- used as low energy bulk filler ingredient in some processed foods
- may act as a laxative, requires label warning for larger amounts
How are sugar alcohols metabolized?
Not metabolized by oral bacteria >> used in some chewing gums