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362 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Define malnutrition
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Any condition caused by excess or deficient food energy or nutrient intake or by an imbalance of nutrients
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Does nutrition affect acute or chronic health?
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Can be either
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Where are chronic effects of malnutrition more common ?
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Non-industrialized countries
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What is the role of nutrition in health ?
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Many diseases can have nutritional components to them.
Four of the top ten leading causes of death have a nutritional component |
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Other choices that affect long term health (not nutrition)
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- tobacco, alcohol and other substance abuse
- physical activity - sleep - stress levels at home and work |
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List the 6 nutrient categories. Which are macro-nutrients, micro-nutrients, and which are energy nutrients?
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What are organic nutrients (energy nutrients)? List examples
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They contain carbon-to-carbon and carbon-to-hydrogen bonds.
Ex: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins |
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What type of nutrients cannot be made within the body and must be obtained via diet?
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essential nutrients
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List 5 Food types and what they mean
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- basic foods or whole foods – unprocessed and unrefined. Ex: diary, meats, fruits, vegetables and grains
-processed foods - basic foods altered by milling, changing texture, cooking, etc. 2 Types. - staple foods - foods used almost daily within diet - organic foods – grown without pesticides or chemical - Fast food |
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List the 2 types of processed food and what they mean
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- enriched food – nutrients have been added to replace those lost in processing.
- fortified food – nutrients have been added in higher concentration than unprocessed food. |
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How is the nutritive value of processed food determined ?
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by origin basic food and type of processing
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What are partitioned foods?
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composed of parts of whole foods. What we refer to being empty calories.
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What are functional foods? What are limitations of these?
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They may contain known biologically-active compounds which when in defined quantitative and qualitative amounts provides a clinically proven and documented health benefit, and thus, an important source in the prevention, management and treatment of chronic diseases.
Limitation: they do not have to actually function within the food, only be present. |
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What is the legal definition of natural foods or nutriceuticals?
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There is none
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10 common choices when selecting our food.
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- Personal preference
- Habit - Ethnic heritage or tradition - Social interaction - Availability, convenience and economy - Positive and negative associations - Emotional comfort - Values - Body weight and image - Nutrition and health benefits |
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4 factors that influence taste
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Sugar content
Fat content Salt content Innate preference |
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Describe the current trend of portion sizes
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fewer items but larger portions becoming more typical
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In what unit is the energy obtained from foods measured?
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Calorie, the capital C is important.
1000 calories = 1 dietary Calorie = 1 Kilocalorie |
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Energy values of fats, protein, carbohydrate and alcohol?
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- fat = 9kcal/g
- protein = 4 kcal/g - carbohydrate = 4 kcal/g - alcohol = 7 kcal/g (alcohol is non-nutrient energy) |
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4 uses of energy nutrients within the body
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- Uses specific to nutrient
- Building blocks for other molecules - Metabolized to produce ATP to power reactions of the cells - Energy storage as glycogen and adipose |
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What are Dietary reference intakes (DRI)?
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System of nutrition recommendations determined by council of US and Canadian scientists based on examination of all refereed studies
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Do the values of the dietary reference intakes change based on gender and age?
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Yes
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what is the median requirement of a group called?
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Estimated average requirement (EAR)
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define recommended daily allowance (RDA)
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Average daily amount of a nutrient considered adequate to meet the needs of virtually all healthy people. This should be your dietary goal.
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What is the average daily amount that appears to be sufficient to maintain a certain criteria called?
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Adequate intake. It is used when RDA cannot be determined.
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Define tolerable upper intake level (UL)
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Upper safe limit for a nutrient. Higher doses risk toxicity. Important to consider when taking mega dose supplements or high use of fortified foods.
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Define estimated energy requirement
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Average energy intake that maintains energy balance and healthy weight of a person.
Actual vs. calculated requirement can vary significantly and highly individualized based on the person. |
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List 6 factors the estimated energy requirement must account for.
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- Age
- Gender - Height - Weight - Body composition - Level of physical activity |
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What are the ranges of energy recommendations for the macro-nutrients?
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- 45-65% kcal from carbohydrate
- 20-35% kcal from fats - 10-35% kcal from protein |
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What type of people do the nutrient guidelines apply to? what type of people must they be adjusted for?
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- Values apply to healthy people.
- Must be adjusted for malnourished individuals, restricted diets, certain chronic illnesses, etc. |
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Is the recommended daily allowance the minimal value needed?
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No, most RDA values considered optimal for > 98% of population.
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What may allow for personalized recommended daily allowance in the future?
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Genomics
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Through what types of foods should the goals of the recommended daily allowance be met?
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Goals intended to be met through a variety of foods
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How long does it take to develop deficiency symptoms of a nutrient?
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Varies by nutrient
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How many countries have published recommendations similar to RDA? And can you find them?
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- About 50 countries have their own published recommendations.
- Food and Agricultural World Organization and World Health Organization have published values. |
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List 4 types of data that a registered dietitian might collect for an individual nutrition assessment
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- Historical information
- Anthropometric data - Physical Exam - eyes, hair, nails, tongue, posture, etc. - Laboratory tests |
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Name 3 factors of historical information
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- Health status and history – must include family history to consider genetics
- Socioeconomic status - Drug history - prescription, over the counter and illicit drugs |
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Name some characteristics of socioeconomic status
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- Ability to purchase food and maintain adequate intake
- Marital status, ethnic background and education status |
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What are three ways that anthropometric data is measured?
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- Height and weight, which is then compare to published tables.
- Circumferences, which is then compare to published tables. - Percent body fat |
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What care three common places to take circumference measurements for anthropometric data?
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Head, waist and hips
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List four ways to measure percent body fat
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- Weight and measurement ratios. These can be highly inaccurate.
- Calipers to measure thickness of skin . - Bioelectrical impedance – measures amount of fat. - Hydrodensitometry |
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Name the three stages in development of a nutrient deficiency.
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1. Body is not obtaining enough of a nutrient due to primary or secondary deficiency.
2. Declining nutrient stores (subclinical) or covert symptoms. 3. Overt physical signs |
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What is the difference between a primary and secondary deficiency?
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- Primary deficiency is due to a lack of intake
- Secondary deficiency is caused by disease. |
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How do you detect that the body is not obtaining enough not a nutrient?
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Diet history or medical history
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How are declining nutrient stores detected?
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Laboratory tests
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How are the overt physical signs of nutrient deficiency detected?
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Physical exam and/or anthropometric measures.
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What does the National Nutrition Monitoring Program do?
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Assesses the nutrition of the US population
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What two surveys were used to assess the nutrition of the US population?
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- US Department of Agriculture (USDA) – kind and amount of food people eat + analysis
- Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) – anthropometric measurements, physical exams and lab tests |
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Name 3 uses of surverys
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- Guide government policies and laws
- Set direction for future research - Food industry: public relations and development of new products |
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List 3 national trends and the net result of them
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- More meals eaten away from home, particularly fast foods.
- Consuming larger portions. - Consuming more empty kcals. - Net result = pending epidemic obesity |
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Is is safe to use the Internet as a source for nutritional information?
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Sometimes, depending on the site.
- no guarantee of accuracy, Generally, there is more misinformation than correct information. - good sources = PubMed or National Library of Medicine or Natural Standard from the VCOM electronic library |
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How well do common news sources work in representing accurate nutritional information?
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- Often sensationalize legitimate studies or prematurely jump on scientific data or even hypothesis. Can present new finding as breakthrough even if only one part of overall picture.
- Plagued by lack of knowledge, tight deadlines, desires for “exclusive stories” etc. - Magazines in particular often swayed by advertisers. |
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Why are physician sometimes not the best sources for nutritional information?
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Only 30% of medical school curriculums offer a dedicated nutrition course and over half of these are less than 25 hours
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What is the difference between a registered dietician and a registered dietetic technician
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registered dietetic technician are trained to work under a registered dietician and must have passed a national exam
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What does the training of a registered dietician involve, and where can they work?
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- Training: 4 year degree from accredited institution, 1 year clinical internship, pass Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics national exam, CME (continuing medical education) required
- Can work in a variety of settings. Ex. food and pharm industry, home health agencies, long term care, private practices, public health agencies, etc. |
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Name 2 characteristics of credentials that are often bogus
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- Often a 6 month correspondence course or simply a diploma.
- Often cite a bogus accrediting agency |
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Name some red flags to recognize bogus nutritional claims
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- Natural
- Quick and easy fixes - Satisfaction guaranteed - Time tested - Paranoid accusations - Personal testimonies - Dr. X says ….. - Meaningless jargon |
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List 5 diet planning principles
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1. Adequacy
2. Balance 3. Nutrient density 4. Moderation 5. Variety |
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Define adequacy
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Providing all essential nutrients, fiber and energy in amounts sufficient to maintain health
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Define balance
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Providing food in proportion to each other and in proportion to the body’s needs
Ex: protein sources - meats high in iron but low in calcium while dairy products low in iron but high in calcium |
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Define nutrient density
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Amount of nutrients a food provides relative to the amount of kcals it provides. Sometimes thought of as an “energy allowance”
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How much calories or nutrients do empty kcal foods provide?
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Plenty of calories but few nutrients
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What is discretionary kcal allowance?
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The kcals remaining in a person’s energy allowance after consuming enough nutrient dense foods to meet all nutrient needs.
Added fats and sugars always considered discretionary kcals. |
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For a piece of fried chicken, where do the discretionary and non-discretionary kcals come from?
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- skin + frying oil = discretionary kcals
- meat = non-discretionary kcals |
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Define moderation
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Not eating too much of a particular food
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Define variety and 2 effects of good variety.
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- Eating a wide selection of food within a particular food group
Effects: improves adequacy and prevents too much of a single contaminant |
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List 3 BASIC diet planning principles
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- My pyramid
- Dietary Guidelines for Americans - Diet planning |
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List the 7 components of the MyPyramid
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- Stairs
- Grains - Vegetables - Fruits - Oils - Milk and dairy products - Meats and beans |
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What do the stairs on the MyPyramid represent?
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moderate daily physical activity coupled with diet (for first time on food pyramid)
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What are some grains, and what type are preferred?
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- Wheat, oats, rice, barley, etc.
What types: - Half or more should be whole grain - Use enriched products when whole grains not used - Limit baked goods, pastries, sweetened cereal, pancakes, etc |
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List 4 types of vegetables and which you should limit.
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1. Dark green - broccoli, spinach, dark lettuce and greens
2. Orange and deep yellow - carrots, pumpkin, sweet potato, winter squash 3. Legumes - beans, most peas, soy products 4. Starchy - corn, potato 5. Other - asparagus, bean sprouts, cucumbers, green beans, mushrooms, tomatoes, zucchini, etc. -Limit: french fries, potato salad, coleslaw, baked beans, scalloped potatoes, etc |
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how much of your daily fruit serving comes from fruit juices, and which type should you limit?
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- Only ¼ from fruit juices
- Limit: canned fruit in syrup, fruit drinks, punches, etc |
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What types of milk and dairy products should you use and which should you limit?
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- Use fat free products
- Limit even low fat products, and milk products with added sugar |
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What types of meats and beans should you limit?
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Limit chicken skin, fried meats, processed meats, fatty meat cuts, bacon, etc
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How often is the Dietary Guidelines for Americans published?
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Published every 5 years
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List the 3 goals of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010
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- Balance calories with physical activity to manage weight.
- Consume more of certain foods and nutrients such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fat-free and low-fat dairy products, and seafood - Consume fewer foods with sodium, saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, and refined grains |
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What do exchange systems do?
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Organize foods by their proportions of energy nutrients
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What are the groupings of the food groups in exchange groups?
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Starches, fruits, milk, other carbohydrates, vegetables, meats, fats and alcohol
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How do exchange systems work?
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- Use of diet plan to determine allowed number of servings from each group
- Foods within each group are interchangeable |
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What are phytochemicals?
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Biologically active compounds of plants believed to confer health benefits
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List 2 types of phytochemicals
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- Antioxidants
- Phytoestrogens |
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What are antioxidants thought to help with?
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Cancer or heart disease
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List 3 functions of phytoestrogens
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1. Mimic or antagonize estrogen function
2. Compete with cholesterol for absorption in GI tract 3. Highest concentrations in nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads. *Some forms due to probiotics of large intestine. |
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Why are supplements not recommended as phytochemicals?
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- Studies proving their effectiveness lacking
- A food may contain thousands of phytochemicals, not just one I isolation - Some phytochemicals interfere with absorption of other nutrients - Some phytochemicals interfere with drug action |
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List 3 safe ways to consume more phytochemicals
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- Consume extra servings of fruits and vegetables
- Liberal use of herbs and spices - Use of grated vegetables |
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List the 4 basic principles of digestion
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1. Ingested foods must be kept moving at a pace that allows maximal digestion and absorption
2. Digestion requires enzymatic access to all food molecules. Must precede absorption. 3. Digestive organs do not auto-digest themselves 4. Any food material not digested excreted as stool |
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List 2 ways digestive system organs prevent auto-digestion
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1. Mucous – can provide protective barrier from enzymes. 2. Digestive enzyme only activated in time of use
(even with protective mechanisms >> high endothelial turnover in stomach and small intestine) |
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What is a zymogen?
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inactive form of a digestive enzyme
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How do zymogens get activated?
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1. Pancreatic enzymes released into duodenum as zymogens
2. Enterokinase activates trypsinogen to trypsin 3. Trypsin activates other zymogens of pancreatic juice |
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What are the 2 forms of digestion?
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1. Mechanical digestion
2. Enzymatic digestion |
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What is the purpose of mechanical digestion?
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used to break bulk food into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzyme action
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What are the two components of mechanical digestion?
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1. Grinding of food by teeth
2. Churning action of stomach |
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What does grinding of food by teeth do?
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mixes enzymes and food
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what does the churning action of stomach do?
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utilizes hydrochloric acid to liquefy food
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How is the food maintained between the teeth during grinding?
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tongue
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Why does only liquefied food enter the duodenum?
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allows all molecules to be accessed by enzymes following emulsification with bile
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List 2 functions of hydrochloric acid
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- Liquefy food
- Sterilize food |
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What enzymes are in the mouth?
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salivary amylase and lipase
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What enzymes are in the stomach?
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pepsinogen activated to pepsin (protease)
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What enzymes are in the small intestine?
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1. Pancreatic juice contains amylases, proteases and lipases in an alkaline solution.
2. :ipases, disaccharidases and lipases also found as glycoproteins in epithelial cell membranes. Digestion is coupled to absorptive machinery. 3. Intestinal secretions include lysozyme and sodium bicarbonate |
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What enzymes are in the large intestine?
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Enzymes of microbes digest fibers
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List 3 ways food moves through the GI tract
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1. Peristalsis
2. Segmentation 3. Lubrication |
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Define peristalsis
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wavelike muscular contractions that propel contents through the GI tract
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What substance are lipids soluble and insoluble in?
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insoluble in aqueous solutions and soluble in organic solvents
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List the 3 major forms of Lipids
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- Phospholipids
- Cholesterol - Triglycerides |
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What is a phospholipid composed of?
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glycerol, 2 fatty acids and polar group such as choline
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what is lecithin?
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A phospholipid often used as an emulsifier in processed foods
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what are triglycerides composed of?
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glycerol and 3 fatty acids
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List 4 general functions of Lipids
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1. Structural components of biological membranes
2. Daily energy usage (60%) + reserves. Comes mostly from triglycerides. 3. Derivatives acts as biologically active molecules exerting a wide range of functions 4. Cholesterol derived bile acids aid in lipid emulsification |
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What is the structure of fatty acids?
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Long-chain hydrocarbon molecules containing a carboxylic acid moiety.
Range in length from 4 to 24 carbons (even numbers only) with 18 being the most common |
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What are the two types of fatty acids?
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Saturated and unsaturated
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What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? Where are they mostly found?
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- saturated fatty acids: contain all single bonds. More common in animal foods.
- Unsaturated fatty acids: contain double bond(s). Monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids unsaturation exists. More common in plant foods. |
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What two factors influence the fluidity of fatty acids?
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1. Saturation, saturated fatty acids less fluid.
2. Length of carbon chain, long carbon chains less fluid and 10 carbons or more will be solids at body temperature |
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What is the goal of digestion of triglycerides?
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Goal is to produce monoglycerides and two fatty acids. Sometimes all three fatty acids removed producing glycerol.
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How are triglycerides broken down in the mouth?
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1. Body temperature begins to melt some fats
2. Lingual lipase – produced by serous glands located in the base of the tongue. It is able to pass through acidic stomach without denaturation, and it plays a major role in infants but only minor role in adults. |
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How are triglycerides broken down in the stomach?
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1. Churning action disperses fats into smaller droplets
2. gastric lipase – minor action |
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How are triglycerides broken down in the small intestine?
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1. In response to fats in lumen enteroendocrine cells release CCK this signals gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release lipases
2. Bile - emulsifies fats so that they can be digested by dissolves enzymes 3. Membrane bound small intestine lipases also active 4. Triglycerides digested to monoglycerol + 2 fatty acids 5. Sterols are absorbed without being digested |
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How is bile formed?
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1. Primary bile acids formed via cytochrome P-450 oxidation of cholesterol
2. Bacteria flora of large intestine dehydroxylate primary bile acids to form secondary bile acids 3. Liver can add glycine or taurine to all primary or secondary bile acids to form conjugated bile salts 4. Net result = all 12 molecules present which have varying degrees of solubility to emulsify dietary lipids |
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What are the 2 fates of bile salts?
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1. Enterohepatic circulation – can be resorbed and recycled to liver
2. Can attach to dietary fibers and carried out of body with stool |
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List 3 ways that Lipids are absorbed
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1. Glycerol and short chain fatty acids – diffuse through mucosal cells and directly into bloodstream
2. Monoglycerides and long chain fatty acids – form micelles for transport into mucosal cells 3. Lymph delivers chylomicrons to bloodstream in subclavian vein. Bypass initial screening by liver. |
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What happens to lipids within the mucosal cells?
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1. Reassembled into triglycerides
2. Packaged into chylomicrons 3. Released into lacteals |
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What is a lipoprotein?
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Lipid/protein complexes that function as transport vehicles for lipids in blood and lymph
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List the 4 types of lipoproteins.
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1. Chylomicrons
2. Very low density lipoproteins 3. Low density lipoproteins (LDLs) 4. High density lipoproteins |
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How do chylomicrons function?
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1. packaged by mucosal cells of small intestine. Ships dietary lipids (mostly triglycerides) to cells of the body.
2. Most triglycerides depleted after 12-14 hours. Remnants then recycled by liver. |
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Which lipoprotein is the largest and least dense?
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Chylomicrons
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How do very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) function?
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1. Liver synthesizes triglycerides and cholesterol from other lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and ethanol
2. Liver packages and releases these lipids as VLDLs 3. Cells remove lipids from VLDLs forming intermediate density lipoproteins (IDLs), cells remove more lipids forming LDL. |
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How do low density lipoproteins (LDLs) function?
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1. Represent left over lipids (mainly cholesterol) that cells do not want
2. Can be removed from circulation and recycled by the liver |
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How do high density lipoproteins function?
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Part of scavenger pathway – produced and released by liver. Cells of body add lipids and then “full” HDLs removed and recycled by liver
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Which lipoprotein is considered good cholesterol, and which is your bad?
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- Low density lipoproteins (LDLs) = bad cholesterol
- High density lipoproteins = good cholesterol |
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List some strategies to increase HDLs and lower LDLs
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- Obtain optimal weight
- Stay physically active - Substitute poly- and monounsaturated triglycerides for saturated triglycerides - Increase consumption of soluble fiber - Increase consumption of phytochemicals - Consume a glass of wine per day |
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What is the function of phospholipids?
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Components of cells membranes
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What are the effected of saturated fatty acids on cholesterol?
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Increases it
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What is the function of cholesterol?
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Components of cells membranes, modified into certain hormones and other messengers, bile salts + more
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What are the 4 functions of triglycerides?
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1. Energy storage
2. Spare proteins from energy metabolism 3. Thermal insulation 4. Mechanical insulation |
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Which two fatty acids are essential for humans?
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linolenic and linoleic fatty acids
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What is the function of linoleic acid? How do we obtain it?
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- used to make all other omega-6 fatty acids. Arachidonic acid most prominent omega-6.
- easily obtained in U.S. diet from vegetable oils and meats |
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What is the function of linolenic acid?
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used to make all omega-3 fatty acids
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Name 2 prominent omega 3's and what they're used for
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- Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA)
Used for: - Essential for growth and development. Particularly for brain and eyes. - May be important in immune response and treatment of heart disease. Anti-inflammatory effect. |
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What are some sources for linolenic acid?
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- Fatty fish (salmon, herring , sardines, etc.) – high in EPA and DHA
- Flaxseed and other oils high in lenolenic acid. High fat diet inhibits conversion of lenolenic acid to EPA and DHA. |
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Do we need more omega 3's or omega 6's in our diet?
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Omega 3's
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Are fatty acid deficiencies common in the US and Canada?
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no
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Where would you find fatty acid deficiencies?
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- Infants/toddler fed fat free milk
- IV fed hospital patients mistakenly not given polyunsaturated fats for a prolonged period |
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What are some symptoms of fatty acid deficiencies?
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- Growth retardation
- Reproductive failure - Skin lesions - Kidney disorders + subtle neurological and visual disorders |
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What is the kink between omega 3's and depression?
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A link exists but we're not sure if it is a cause or an effect
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What are 2 uses of triglycerides?
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1. Storage as body fat
2. Usage for energy |
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how are triglycerides stored as body fat?
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- Adipose tissue = virtually unlimited energy storage capacity
- lipoprotein lipase – enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in lipoprotein to yield monoglycerides and 2 fatty acids which is able to enter adipose cells and then be reassembled |
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How is triglyceride used for energy?
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- Hormone sensitive lipase – enzyme within adipose cells that hydrolyzes triglycerides to yield glycerol + 3 fatty acids which is then released into bloodstream for use by other cells.
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How much energy comes from triglycerides, and how much energy is in 1 pound of fat?
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- Supplies 60% of resting energy needs. Larger percentage at other times such as exercise or fasting.
- 1lb. fat = 3500 kcal |
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What are the health effects of lipids? What is recommended?
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- Linked to heart disease, some cancers and obesity.
- Recommend decreasing saturated fats, trans fats and cholesterol + moderation of fat intake |
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Relate heart disease to cholesterol and triglycerides
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- Blood cholesterol strongly linked to heart disease
- Dietary saturated triglycerides largest factor in raising blood cholesterol |
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What risk is associated with saturated fats?
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-Strongest factor in elevating LDLs
Ex: lauric, myristic and palmitic acids (12, 14 and 16 carbons) elevate blood cholesterol levels |
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What is the most common saturated fat and what is its effect on the heart?
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- stearic acid (18 carbons) most common
- may decrease cholesterol |
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What kind of saturated fats are most common from animal sources?
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most saturated fats from animal sources, except coconut and palm oils, are saturated but have shorter carbon chains
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What are some ideas to consume less saturated fats?
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- Trim fats from meats
- Leaner cuts of meat or substitute poultry - Non-fat dairy products - Non-hydrogenated margarine + use of polyunsaturated cooking oils - Fat substitutes |
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What risks are associated with trans fats? and What can we do about it?
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- Linked to heart disease
- Raise LDLs and decrease HDLs We should avoid hydrogenated processed foods |
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How much cholesterol is in each egg and why is this important?
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each egg has 200mg of cholesterol which is 2/3 of recommended daily limit
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What is the only source of cholesterol for humans?
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animal food sources
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Is it more important to decrease intake of cholesterol of saturated fats?
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saturated fats since they can produce cholesterol in the body
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What are some healthy ways to eat eggs?
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1. Use of egg whites without yolk
2. Use of egg substitutes 3. eggs from chickens fed flax seed diet has decreased cholesterol and increased omega 3 fatty acids |
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What is the butter vs. margarine dilemma?
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Butter has saturated fats, while margarine has trans fats.
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What are the benefits of mono and polyunsaturated fats?
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unsaturated does not make cholesterol in the body. Used in Mediterranean diet.
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What are the benefits of omega 3 fatty acids?
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- Decreased risk of heart disease and stroke. It prevents blood clots + decreased blood pressure particularly in people with hypertension or atherosclerosis.
recommendation of 2 servings of fatty fish per week |
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What are some ways to balance omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids?
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- Decrease meats (particularly red meats) while increasing fatty fish
- Use of nonconventional sources of omega 3 fatty acids such as pasture feed beef or eggs from flaxseed fed hens - omega 3 pills generally provide mega doses which causes increased clotting time, increased LDLs, decreased immune function |
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What is the relationship between lipids and cancer?
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saturated fats from meats firmly linked to certain types of cancer. They don't promote the cancer but they help it grow.
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How does obesity relate to fat intake? How well does cutting fat intake work?
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- increased fat intake significantly increased kcals
- Cutting fat intake effective in cutting kcal intake if labels closely read. Ex: some fat free deserts have greatly increased sugar content and even more kcal that the fat containing version. |
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What are the recommended intakes of fats, linolenic and linleic acid, saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol?
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- 20-35% of daily kcals from fats
- 10% linolenic and 0.6-1.2 % linoleic - Maximum of 10% from saturated fats - Decrease trans fats as much as possible - 300 mg cholesterol |
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Typically, who are concerned about consuming too little fat and what is recommended for them?
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- Only a problem for athletes with highly elevated kcal needs or those with eating disorders
- Recommendation is to include equivalent of 1 tsp fat per meal |
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What stimulates peristalsis and how is it modified?
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- stimulus is stretch of the lumenal wall
- modified via parasympathetic or hormonal input |
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What kind of reflex is peristalsis?
|
intrinsic reflex with all components contained within wall of organ
|
|
What does segmentation appear as and what is its function?
|
- Appears as disrupted peristalsis
Functions: - Churns chime within duodenum - promotes mixing of food with pancreatic juices - increases contact of food molecules with epithelial cell membrane |
|
What type of movement is lubrication involved in?
|
frictionless movement
|
|
How does lubrication of food take place?
|
- Mucous component of saliva lubricates semisolid bolus through esophagus with esophagus also producing more mucous
- Copious goblet cells in ilium and large intestine provide lubrication as water is removed to produce a semisolid stool |
|
what are the 4 control mechanisms of GI function?
|
1. Secretion of saliva
2. Secretion of gastric juice 3. Control of pyloric sphincter 4. Release of pancreatic juice |
|
What are two ways saliva is released?
|
- Bulk released by chewing action
- Minor amounts released via smell and thoughts |
|
Describe the feedback system of gastric juice
|
1. Enteroendocrine cells release gastrin
2. Indirectly stimulates chief cells and parietal cells to release gastric juice 3. This causes a lower pH in stomach, which acts as negative feedback to cease gastrin release |
|
List two ways to release gastric juices
|
1. Enteroendocrine cells
2. Parasympathic nervous system and stretch of stomach wall also activate release of gastric juices |
|
How does gastrin relate to motility?
|
gastrin acts to increase stomach motility
|
|
What causes the pyloric sphincter to open and close?
|
1. Opens slightly during churning action of stomach to allow liquefied chyme to enter duodenum
2. Cells on distal side of pyloric sphincter sense lowered pH which causes the pyloric sphincter to close 3. Sodium bicarbonate solution from pancreatic juice raises pH in duodenum, allowing the pyloric sphincter to re-open |
|
How is bicarbonate solution released?
|
The decreased pH from chyme causes enteroendocrine cells to release secretin which causes the release of bicarbonate solution from pancreatic duct cells
|
|
What is the function of bicarbonate solution?
|
bicarbonate solution elevates pH and acts as a negative feedback that ceases release of secretin
|
|
What happens when fat and/or protein enters the duodenum?
|
enteroendocrine cells release cholecystokinin (CCK)
|
|
List the 3 effects of the release of cholecystokinin (CCK)
|
1. Causes acinar cells of pancreas release zymogen forms of proteases, lipases and amylases. Which is later activated by cell membrane proteins of duodenum.
2. Causes relaxation of sphincter of Oddi allowing bile to enter the small intestine 3. Release of second hormone called enterogastrone which causes decreased GI motility, allowing more time for fat and protein digestion. |
|
How does the body know to stop releasing cholecystokinin (CCK)?
|
absorption of fats and proteins turns off signal for CCK secretion
|
|
About how many gastrointestinal bacteria, what can affect these numbers?
|
About 400 species, diet affects number and diversity
|
|
Where do most gastrointestinal bacteria live and why?
|
most live in the large intestine due to neutral pH + slow peristalsis
|
|
What do gastrointestinal microbes digest and what do they produce?
|
- Microbes digest food materials that humans lack enzymes to digest. From a dietary perspective this would be primarily fibers.
- Produce short chain fatty acids that are absorbed by mucosa - Also, release some vitamins and minerals that are absorbed |
|
how can gastrointestinal bacteria be toxic?
|
some prokaryotic enzymes can activate other non-absorbed molecules, converting them to carcinogens or other toxins
|
|
What are probiotics?
|
Living microorganisms in food that when consumed are beneficial to health.
|
|
What happens when probiotics get past the acidic stomach ?
|
can colonize large intestine
|
|
What are prebiotics?
|
food materials that are acted upon by gut bacteria with subsequent product release
|
|
List 8 common digestive problems.
|
1. Choking
2. Vomiting 3. Diarrhea 4. Constipation 5. Belching 6. Flatulence 7. Gastroesophageal reflux 8. Ulcers |
|
Define choking
|
food becomes lodged in trachea cutting off air supply
|
|
What does the Heimlich maneuver do?
|
forces air out of lungs and blows lodged food upward. Helping someone who is choking.
|
|
Why do people vomit?
|
body’s reaction to rid stomach of irritating substance. It activates higher centers within the brain.
|
|
What medical concern is associated with vomiting?
|
fluid and electrolyte loss
|
|
What is the first order of treatment for someone who is vomiting?
|
rest and consume small volumes of liquids as tolerated
|
|
Why is vomiting in infant more of a concern?
|
Infants have a smaller percentage of body weight and they reply on their body water for maintenance of body temperature
|
|
Why does prolonged vomiting require medical treatment?
|
to prevent dehydration
|
|
What are the 6 effects of prolonged self-induced vomiting?
|
1. Salt and fluid imbalance
2. Irritation and infection of upper GI tract 3. Erosion of teeth and gum leading to dental caries 4. Potential rupture of esophagus and/or stomach 5. Potential broken blood vessels in eye/brain |
|
What is diarrhea?
|
frequent, loose, watery stools
|
|
What causes diarrhea?
|
- due to material moving too rapidly through the large intestine and/or osmotic pressure drawing water into fecal material
- can occur with some food additives such as sorbitol or olestra |
|
What is the medical concern with diarrhea?
|
fluid and electrolyte loss
|
|
What is constipation?
|
Inability to have a bowel movement. Results in hard stools when bowel movement becomes possible.
Even minor constipation can aggravate hemorrhoids. |
|
What factors control the urge to defecate?
|
1. Circadian rhythm
2. Increased peristalsis following a meal 3. Defection signal which will subside without a bowel movement 4. Other controlling factors = health of individual, type of food consumed, timing of meals and physical exercise |
|
How often do most individuals defecate?
|
from 3/day to 1 every 3 days
|
|
What are 4 ways to help naturally control constipation?
|
1. Maintain regular eating at sleeping habits
2. Consume a leisurely breakfast and obey urge to defecate 3. Exercise 4. Gradually increase fiber content of diet |
|
What is prolonged constipation a sign of?
|
a serious medical issues such as colitis or irritable bowel syndrome (IRB)
|
|
What causes belching?
|
- Swallowing air with food.
- Other causes: ill-fitting dentures, carbonated beverages and chewing gum |
|
How can one alleviate belching?
|
eating more slowly
|
|
What can belching be a symptom of?
|
gallbladder disease or peptic ulcer
|
|
What is flatulence produced by?
|
bacterial action of undigested food within the large intestine
|
|
How much intestinal gas does an average person produce per day, and how much is odorless?
|
Average person produced 350 ml per day of intestinal gas with 99% odorless
|
|
What food sources most commonly causes flatulence?
|
fiber sources
|
|
How can someone produce a tolerance for foods that causes flatulence for them?
|
eating such foods in moderation
|
|
Why do different food item cause people flatulence during different periods of their life?
|
composition of intestinal flora changes over lifespan which causes changes in foods that cause flatulence
|
|
What is the gastroesophageal reflux?
|
Painful sensation behind sternum when the gastroesophageal sphincter allows acids contents of the stomach to enter the esophagus. Commonly referred to as heart burn.
|
|
What are some causes of a gastroesophageal reflux?
|
- typically due to eating too much or lying down after eating
- Other causes:smoking or medications, late pregnancy or an anatomical defect |
|
Why should over the counter remedies should be used sparingly in response to the gastroesophageal reflux?
|
can mask more severe problems and/or have unwanted side effects
|
|
What are ulcers?
|
lesions in lining of the GI tract
|
|
Where are ulcers commonly located?
|
most common are gastric and duodenal ulcers, with esophageal ulcers sometimes seen
|
|
Where are ulcers most commonly located?
|
most common are gastric and duodenal ulcers, with esophageal ulcers sometimes seen
|
|
What happens if ulcers are left untreated?
|
Could develop into a bleeding ulcer or perforated ulcer
|
|
What happens if ulcers are left untreated?
|
Could develop into a bleeding ulcer or perforated ulcer
|
|
What are 3 major causes of ulcers?
|
1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Use of certain anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen or naproxen 3. Diseases that cause excessive hydrochloric acid secretion |
|
What are 3 major causes of ulcers?
|
1. Helicobacter pylori
2. Use of certain anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen or naproxen. 3. Diseases that cause excessive hydrochloric acid secretion. |
|
What are 3 ways to treat ulcers?
|
1. Prescription drugs or lack of drug causing ulcer
2. Avoid foods that aggravate symptoms 3. Avoid nicotine, caffeine and ethanol |
|
What are 3 ways to treat ulcers?
|
1. Prescription drugs or lack of drug causing ulcer
2. Avoid foods that aggravate symptoms 3. Avoid nicotine, caffeine and ethanol |
|
What are 2 general types of carbohydrates?
|
- Simple sugars
- Complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides |
|
Monoaccharides and polysaccharides are two types of what?
|
simple sugars
|
|
What are 3 types of monosaccharaides and 3 types of polysaccharides?
|
Monosaccharaides:
- Fructose - Glucose - Galactose Polysaccharides: - Lactose - Maltose - Sucrose |
|
What is fructose, where is it found and what does it do?
|
Fructose is a monosaccharide found in fruits, honey and products sweetened with high fructose corn syrup. It makes food taste sweet.
|
|
What is the main metabolic sugar in the body, and how is it formed?
|
Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main metabolic sugar in the body. Most monosaccharaides get converted to glucose within the bosy
|
|
What is galactose?
|
digestion product of lactose
|
|
What is lactose and how is it formed?
|
Lactose is milk sugar which is the condensation product of glucose and galactose
|
|
What are two ways to produce maltose?
|
- Condensation of two glucose molecules
- Digestion of starch |
|
What is typically referred to as table sugar and why does it taste sweet?
|
Sucrose, tastes sweet due to fructose component
|
|
List 3 carbohydrates or polysaccharides
|
- Starch
- Glycogen - Fiber |
|
What is starch and what is it used for?
|
Starch is a glucose polymer used by plants for long term energy storage, it is also a major dietary component. Also used as food thickener.
|
|
What are two forms of starch and what is the difference between them?
|
1. Amylose - non-branching coiled molecule
2. Amylopectin - branched glucose polymer |
|
What are some properties of of starch?
|
white, tasteless, odorless powder
|
|
How does glycogen differ from glucose and starch, how much is found within the diet?
|
Glycogen is the animal storage form of glucose.
It is similar to starch but more branched and has longer chains. Minimal amounts found within diet. |
|
What is the structural material found in plants called?
|
Fiber
|
|
What is the structure of most fibers?
|
- Most fibers are polymers of glucose
- contain Beta rather than alpha bonds between glucose moieties |
|
cant fiber be digested by humans?
|
no
|
|
List some examples of fibers
|
cellulose, hemicellulose, chitin, waxes, lignin, etc
|
|
What are two types of fibers?
|
soluble or insoluble
|
|
Name one use of fibers
|
Can be added to processed foods as a thickener
|
|
how much carbohydrates in an average persons diet come from plants?
|
only appreciable amounts come from plant sources
|
|
How are monosaccharides consumed?
|
only fructose consumed in significant amounts
|
|
How are disaccharides consumed?
|
must be broken down to monosaccharaides by membrane bound enzymes of villi in small intestine
|
|
What produces Salivary amylase, and what does it do?
|
produced by parotid gland, begins the digestion of starch
|
|
What does Pancreatic amylase do?
|
It is a major digestive enzyme for starch, after salivary amylase continues to shorten glucose chains to produce maltose
|
|
where is Maltase found and what does it do?
|
It is a component of cell membrane on villi. It functions to digests maltose into two glucose molecules that can then be absorbed.
|
|
How does soluble fiber act on the body's water?
|
attracts water becoming more viscous
|
|
What happens if someone eats a lot of soluble fiber but drinks no water?
|
can cause constipation
|
|
How is soluble fiber digested and what does it produce?
|
- Readily digested by fauna of the large intestine that have the enzyme Beta-amylase.
-Do to the anaerobic environment, methane and other gasses are produced. - Also releases short chain fatty acids which are absorbed by the large intestine - Also a significant source of vitamin K |
|
What happens to insoluble fiber in the body?
|
- It does not attract water and not appreciably broken down by endogenous bacteria
- Provide non-digestible bulk in stomach, causing the feeling of being full - Provide bulk in waste material leading to increased rate of peristalsis and softer stool |
|
What happens to resistant starches within the body?
|
have alpha-linkages but are not readily digested >> act like fiber
|
|
Do plant foods contain mostly soluble or insoluble fibers?
|
most plant foods contain varying degrees of both soluble and insoluble fibers
|
|
List 6 health benefits of fiber?
|
1. Lower blood cholesterol - because it binds to cholesterol and bile salts preventing absorption
2. Retard absorption of glucose - this helps in regulating blood glucose levels 3. Potentially lowers the risk of colon cancer 4. Provide satiety without adding calories 5. Alleviates constipation 6. High fiber foods typically nutrient dense |
|
What is satiety?
|
Feeling that you're full
|
|
What is the only food sources that provides fibers for humans?
|
plants
|
|
What is the difference between a fruit and a vegetable?
|
- Fruits – develop from a flower
- Vegetables – leaf, root of stem of a plant |
|
Why are some fruits classified as vegetables?
|
based on their nutritional value
|
|
What staple food has high nutrient values of both starch and fiber?
|
grains
|
|
What is a chaff?
|
dry, scaly outer covering of grains
|
|
What is a bran? What is it a good source of?
|
-Shell of a wheat kernel
- Major source of fiber + several nutrients |
|
Why do some people not like bran even though it is a good source of fiber
|
It is very tough and requires a lot of chewing, also the rough texture viewed as undesirable
|
|
What is the germ of a grain?
|
portion of seed that develop into a new plant
|
|
What is the endosperm of a grain, and what is its function?
|
It is the starch component of seed , and it provides nourishment to germ
|
|
Describe the historical milling process
|
Grind between two stones. Removed chaff only which is then separated from the rest of the seed.
|
|
Describe the historical milling process
|
The grain is refined removing the chaff, bran and germ. The endosperm is then bleached for whiteness and softness
|
|
What did the U.S. Enrichment Act of 1942 do?
|
In the early years of refining, refined grain products severely lacking in nutrients. This Act called for enrichment procedures to be standard.
|
|
Compared to whole grain breads, what is still missing in refined breads?
|
fiber + several nutrients
|
|
What does "whole grain" on a products label determine?
|
flour composition
|
|
How is glucose and galactose absorbed?
|
- Actively transported into mucosa cells of the small intestine
- Absorbed rapidly - Finally, rapidly placed into the bloodstream (small amounts of glucose actually absorbed across oral mucosa) |
|
How is fructose absorbed? How fast?
|
- Absorbed by mucosa cells of small intestine via facilitated diffusion.
- Not absorbed as fast as glucose or galactose |
|
How is starch absorbed? How fast??
|
- Starch must be digested to glucose monomers by pancreatic and membrane-bound enzymes in order to be absorbed
- This is slow absorption |
|
Why is amylose digested more slowly than amylopectin?
|
Amylose contains fewer 1’ ends on which digestive enzymes can function
|
|
What causes lactose intolerance?
|
Dysfunction of lactase
|
|
What are the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
|
nausea, bloating, diarrhea and gas upon consuming milk products
|
|
What process leads to the symptoms of lactose intolerance?
|
- Osmosis causes water to leave intestinal tissues into lumen.
- Lactose cannot diffuse in such a manner and is fermented by bacteria of large intestine |
|
What allergic reaction is often mistaken for lactose intolerance?
|
Allergic reaction to caseins
|
|
What is lactose persistence?
|
lactase activity remains after weaning
|
|
What happens to lactose tolerance with age?
|
About 75% of adults show decrease lactose tolerance with age with varying degrees of intolerance
|
|
What are 6 strategies lactose intolerant individuals can follow since it plays an essential role dietary calcium?
|
1. Children most at risk >> require calcium fortified milk substitute
2. Level of intolerance should determined 3. Aged cheese tolerated as bacteria ferment the lactose 4. Yogurt introduces lactose utilizing bacteria 5. Consume milk only with a meal 6. Lactose-free milk or milk substitutes readily available or individuals can add lactase |
|
A lactose free diets difficult to obtain, where are some other places lactose is found?
|
1. Breads, cereals, salad dressing, cake mixes, etc.
2. Found in 20% of prescription drugs plus some OTC drugs as a filler 3. Must read labels for milk products, whey and casein |
|
What are 2 uses of carbohydrate in the body?
|
- Energy
- Carbon source for synthesis of other biomolecules |
|
What are 2 storage forms of carbohydrate?
|
- Glycogen
- Triglycerides |
|
What is the difference between glycogen and triglycerides in terms of storage?
|
Glycogen is filled first. Triglycerides are filled after glycogen stores will up. Also triglycerides are for long term storage and their storage capacity is not limited.
|
|
How are blood glucose levels maintained?
|
homeostatically
|
|
Which cells use 75% of glucose? Are are some other consumers of glucose?
|
- Brain cells use 75%
- Skeletal and heart muscle + erythrocytes are also consumers |
|
Can triglycerides cross the blood brain barrier?
|
no
|
|
What are 3 ways that blood glucose levels are maintained?
|
- liver glycogen
- gluconeogenesis - ketosis |
|
How long do liver glycogen stores last?
|
8-12 hours
|
|
What are two sources of sugar in the American diet?
|
- Natural sugars from milk, fruits, vegetables and grains >> approximately ½ of daily sugar intake
- Added sugars |
|
Describe the trend of added sugars
|
Consumption rising of past three decades. Soft drinks and sugared fruit drinks responsible for most of this increase
|
|
List some sugars on food labels
|
sucrose, corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), invert sugar, corn sweeteners, dextrose, levulose, honey, etc
|
|
What are 5 reasons reasons for use of sugar as an additive?
|
1. enhanced taste
2. adds texture and color to baked goods 3. bulking agent in ice cream 4. preservative in jams 5. balances acidity in tomato and vinegar based foods |
|
What are 4 health effects of sugars?
|
1. In moderation, can add pleasure to meals without harming health
2. Causes nutrient deficiencies 3. Source of excess calories 4. Causes dental caries |
|
What types of calories is mostly present in sweets?
|
empty kcalories
|
|
What detrimental effect can empty kcalories have in a diet?
|
empty kcalories can displace other foods in diet
|
|
Roughly how many kcal does it take for an average adult to obtain their needed amount of nutrients?
|
About 1500 kcals
|
|
What are discretionary kcals?
|
individuals with higher kcal needs have more room for empty kcal foods, these empty kcals are called discretionary kcals
|
|
What happens to excess calories?
|
once glycogen stores are full, excess sugars are converted to triglycerides for long term energy storage
|
|
How are dental caries formed?
|
- Beings with anaerobic glycolysis of glucose in an oral cavity an anaerobic environment. Causes pyruvic or lactic acid buildup, leading to caries.
|
|
How do liquid factors influence formation of caries?
|
The acidic pH of soft drinks, orange juice and sports drinks can erode and thin tooth enamel
|
|
What is a major food factor influencing formation of caries? Is this more of a concern with sticky foods or sugary drinks?
|
-How long the sugary (or starchy) food remains within the mouth
- This is more of a concern with sticky foods or chewing gum because they typically remain in your mouth longer |
|
What is bottle mouth syndrome?
|
caries caused by child falling asleep with bottle in mouth
|
|
What are some other factors influencing formation of caries? (Not food)
|
- bacteria present within dental plaque
- saliva - minerals that form teeth |
|
Is regular brushing and flossing more important in preventing caries or dietary restriction of sugary foods?
|
regular brushing and flossing more important
|
|
What disease is characterized by high glucose levels and inadequate and/or ineffective insulin?
|
diabetes mellitus
|
|
Diabetes mellitus is a growing epidemic in U.S. of the Top 10 leading causes of death, where is it ranked?
|
6th leading cause of death
|
|
What are 4 effects of elevated blood glucose?
|
- Excess glucose non-enzymatically attaches to proteins leading to a loss of protein function
- Blurry vision from swelling of lens + cataract formation, also the leading cause of adult blindness - risk of heart disease and stroke doubles - Poor circulation |
|
What are 3 effects of poor circulation due to diabetes mellitus
|
- kidney damage leading to kidney failure
- poor periphery circulation causing poor healing leading to gangrene, patient might need amputations |
|
What is pre-diabetes?
|
elevated blood glucose but not to levels of diabetes, it is a major risk for future development of diabetes
|
|
At what age is it recommended to start testing for pre-diabetes
|
Testing recommended for anyone over age 45, and earlier if overweight
|
|
What are 3 forms of diabetes?
|
- Gestational
- Type 1 - Type 2 |
|
What type of diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which Beta-cells of pancreas are destroyed?
|
Type 1
|
|
What type of diabetes is associated with a genetic link and initiated by viral infection?
|
Type 1
|
|
Of all individuals with diabetes, how many have type 1?
|
5-10% of diabetics
|
|
What type of diabetes is insulin resistance where the liver, muscle and adipose tissues are less sensitive to insulin
|
Type 2
|
|
How is Type 2 diabetes linked to an eventual overload to Beta-cells resulting in a loss of insulin production?
|
Since the cells are less sensitive to insulin, you are left with a high blood sugar. The high blood sugar leads to elevated insulin levels which causes the overload
|
|
What are some risk factors for type 2 diabetes?
|
- Strongest risk factors = middle age, lack of exercise and obesity
- Other risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, lipid profiles, etc. |
|
What type of diabetes is linked to diabetes?
|
Type 2
|
|
What are 3 to aid in management/ prevention of progression of pre-diabetes
|
- Exercise – causes cells to become more sensitive to insulin
- Weight control - Proper nutrition |
|
What types of nutritional steps should one take in management/ prevention of progression of pre-diabetes?
(4) |
- Decreased fat intake, particularly saturated and trans fats
- Use of exchange system to control caloric intake - Control glucose intake - Increase fiber intake |
|
Define hypoglycemia
|
low blood glucose levels
|
|
What is a common condition caused by diabetics administering too much insulin
|
hypoglycemia
|
|
What happens in postprandial hypoglycemia?
|
Extremely rare condition where an individual has low blood glucose levels following a meal causing fatigue, weakness, increased heart rate, headache, etc.
|
|
What happens in fasting hypoglycemia?
|
low blood glucose levels during fasting, due to liver or pancreas damage or medications
|
|
What is another name for sugar alternative which provide virtually 0 kcal?
|
non-nutritive sweeteners
|
|
Is it safe to use sugar alternatives?
|
all are safe at normal levels
|
|
What are the 7 main examples of non-nutritive sweeteners, and which is the oldest?
|
- Saccharin (Sweet N’ Low): oldest sweetener, used for over 100 years
- Aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) - Acesulfame potassium (Sunnette) - Sucralose (Splenda) - Neotame - Tagalose - alitame and cyclamate: both submitted to FDA for approval |
|
saccharin (Sweet N’ Low) is not metabolized in the body, what happens to it?
|
Readily secreted in urine
|
|
What are some uses of saccharin (Sweet N’ Low)?
|
primarily used in soft drinks, but also used as a table top sweetener
|
|
What were some of the safety concerns with saccharin (Sweet N’ Low)?
|
- A1977 study – rats fed equivalent of > 100 sodas/day/life showed higher incidence of bladder cancer.
- Caused FDA to ban saccharin however, Congress passed yearly legislation to allow it to remain on market - Largest human studies show no increased risk for bladder cancer, although one study showed slight increased risk in smokers |
|
What is aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) composed of?
|
methylated phenylalanine with aspartic acid
|
|
How is aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) metabolized, how much energy?
|
- Metabolized as 2 amino acids.
- It is sometimes mixed with lactose - Breaks down under increased temperature or metabolism to yield methanol which is further metabolized to formaldehyde, toxic substances - Provides up to 4 kcal /package of sweetener |
|
Which sugar alternative can people with phenylketonuria not use?
|
aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)
|
|
If aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal) metabolism leads to production of toxic substance, methanol and formaldehyde, why is it still on the market?
|
- Even with high usage, methanol and formaldehyde levels well below threshold
- Tomato juice 6X more methanol than diet soda |
|
What is a mild concern with aspartame (NutraSweet and Equal)?
|
Methanol and formaldehyde may lower seizure threshold in epileptics
|
|
Is acesulfame potassium (Sunnette) metabolized in the body, and how legal is it?
|
It is not metabolized in the body and it is approved in most countries
|
|
What is the structure of sucralose (Splenda)?
|
Sugar with three hydroxyl groups replaced by chlorine atoms
|
|
How stable is sucralose (Splenda) compared to sugar, and how stable is it?
|
much sweeter than sugar and extremely stable
|
|
What happens to sucralose (Splenda) within the body?
|
not absorbed, passed through GI tract
|
|
What is the structure of neotame?
|
aspartame with an additional side group added
|
|
Compare the sweetness and stability of neotame to that of aspartame
|
sweeter and more stable than aspartame
|
|
Is neotame safe for PKU patients?
|
Yes because it is not metabolized
|
|
What is the structure of tagalose and how is it produced?
|
- enantiomer of fructose
- produced commercially from whey |
|
Where is tagalose found?
|
found naturally in a handful of foods
|
|
What happens to tagalose in the body?
|
- It is not metabolized by oral flora so it does not promote caries
- 80% remains unabsorbed and is metabolized by flora of large intestine - short chain fatty acids produced and absorbed releasing 1.5 kcal/g - increased usage leads to flatulence, rumbling and loose stools - hailed as a probiotic that may benefit GI health |
|
What is the current legal status of alitame and cyclamate?
|
- Alitame – widely approved in other countries
- Cyclamate – banned in 1969 based on flawed study showing increased risk for bladder cancer in mice. does not cause cancer but it may enhance carcinogenesis of other substances (no FDA guidelines for this). . |
|
What is acceptable daily intake (ADI), how is it given and where is typically set?
|
- ADI is the level of consumption considered to be safe.
- Given as mg/kg body weight/day/lifetime - Typically at least 100X less level that can cause negative side effects |
|
What are two other non-sugar sweeteners?
|
- Stevia
- Sugar alcohols |
|
Where is Stevia derived from?
|
leaves of South American shrub, used by indigenous peoples for centuries
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What is the legal status of Stevia, and how safe is it?
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- Lacks enough research for FDA approval as a food additive so it is sold in health food stores as a dietary supplement
- Approved in Canada and recently (2011) approved in European Union - Research has indicated some concerns, but probably little harm if used sparingly |
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What are two other names for sugar alcohols?
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- Sugar replacers or nutritive sweeteners
- Often allow use of “sugar-free” labeling |
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What are a couple examples of sugar alcohols?
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Mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, etc.
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Compared to the absorption rate of sugar, what is the rate of absorption of sugar alcohols?
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Absorbed more slowly than sugars
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What are 2 uses of sugar alcohols?
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- used as low energy bulk filler ingredient in some processed foods
- may act as a laxative, requires label warning for larger amounts |
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How are sugar alcohols metabolized?
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Not metabolized by oral bacteria >> used in some chewing gums
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