Nutrition Mcq 1

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Fermentation in the horse occur

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In the cecum and colon after the small intestine

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Fermentation in cattle occur

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In the rumen prior to the small intestine

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Nutrition has profound influences on the health of the animal in

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Laminitis (Horse); Obecity (Dog); Renal failure (Cat); Milk fever (Dairy cattle)

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Where cost is not an issue people will pay up for

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Expensive feed that prevents certain diseases (tying up in horses);

Amino acids and vitamin supplements (better temperment horses);

Less odorous faeces, more palatable food, food that looks nicer

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Nutrition closely related to health and wholley controlled by the owner

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Preventative medicine - avoid illnesses through proper nutrition

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All important nutrients bar water will be found in

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Dry matter

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Inorganic nutrients

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Copper, cobalt etc. major components of many enzymes of the body

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Organic nutrients

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Extremely important to the maintenance of animal

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Water essential for

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Life - prevention of dehydration and fight against diarrhea

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Variable water content in body mass

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Newborn animal up to 90%; fat animal 50%

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Two major functions of water

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Metabolism (all biochemical rxns; medium for transport in digesta, blood, urine, sweat);

Temperature regulation (sweating, panting)

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Metabolic water

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Formed during metabolism by oxidation of hydrogen containing organic nutrients;

Important source for hibernating animals

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Sources of water

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From metabolism, from feed, from drinking water

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Water content in air dry concentrates

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10-15% water

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Water content in succulent feeds

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70%+ water

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Water content in root crops

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80%+ water

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Water content in hay/straw

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10-15% water

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Water content in silage

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5-84% water

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Water adds

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No calories but does add palatability

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Factors affecting water requirement

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Production (growth, eggs, milk);

Diet and dry matter intake (food, salt);

Species and size;

Athletic performance; Environment (temperature, rainfall, humidity);

Health (haemorrhage, vomiting, diarrhea)

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Difference in amount of food required between wet and dry

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A greater weight of the wet food will need to be fed in order to get the same amount of nutrients as in dry food (nutrients in wet food more dilute)

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Equalize the amount of nutrients in a feed by

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Taking it as a measure of the dry matter content (content in a feed after all moisture is removed)

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70% of the dry matter of plants is made up by

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Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates are what % of an animals body

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1%

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Sugars are

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carbohydrates contained less than 10 monosaccharides

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Polysaccharides

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3 or greater strand of monosaccharides - include starch, cellulose, hemicellulose etc.

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Over time grass becomes more stemy meaning it increases in which type of carbohydrate

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Structural carbohydrates (ex. cellulose)

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Non-structural carbohydrate

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Starch

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Starch is made up of

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amylose and amylopectin

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Starch is readily broken down by

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Pancreatic and salivary amylase; mammalian enzymes; almost completely digestible is exposed

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Structure of amylose

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Linked at Carbon 1 and 4 or 1 and 6 by alpha linkages

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Structure of cellulose

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Linked at carbon 1 and 4 by beta linkages

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Cellulose is a major component of

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Plant cell walls and cannot be digested by mammalian enzymes;

Microflora of rumen in ruminants can break it down (produce cellulase)

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Cellulose digestibility is decreased by

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Lignin

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Hemicellulose differs from cellulose only in

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How the individual molecules are linked; complex group of cell wall polysaccharides that cannot be digested by mammalian enzymes

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Lignin is

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Not strictly a carbohydrate

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Lignin acts as

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Intercellular cement and is associated with plant cellulose and hemicellulose;

Very resistant to enzyme degredation;

Amount increases with age of plant;

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Lignin affects feed by

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Reducing digestibility; Cellulose becomes significantly less digestible in the presence of lignin

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Lipids / Fats / Oils

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Organic compounds insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents

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Fats refer to

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Solid lipids

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Oils refer to

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Liquid lipids

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Major role of lipids is

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Energy storage

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Brown fat has a role in

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Temperature regulation

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Amount of energy in fat compared to carbohydrate

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Contains twice as much energy

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Lipids a source of essential fatty acids which are

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Fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in mammals

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Essential fatty acids are important for

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Heart disease;

Immunity;

Inflammation;

Joint disease;

Skin health;

Reproduction

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Lipids are carriers for

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Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)

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Lipids are a constituent of

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Cell membranes

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Glycerol + Fatty acids =

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Triglyceride

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The most common way for lipids to be added to the diets is

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As triglycerides

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Saturated fatty acids have no

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Double bonds in the C,H, and O chains (maximum hydrogens);

Shorter chains are usually solid at room temperature (Fats)

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Unsaturated long chain fatty acids are usually

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Liquid at room temperature (Oil)

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The number and location of double bond in lipids dictates

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What purpose the lipid has or if it is just used for energy

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Fatty acid name meanings

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First number - How many carbons are present;

Second number - Number of double bonds;

N - position relative to the last carbon atom

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Linoleic acid and linolenic acid

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Cannot be synthesized so much be fed (dietary essentials)

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Arachodonic acid

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Synthesized at a slow rate de-novo, so required if C18:2 lipid is not present

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Essential fatty acid requirements related to

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Prostaglandin;

Hormone like substances;

Regulate blood clotting, pressure;

Smooth muscle contractions;

Reproduction;

Immune responce

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EPA eicosapentaenoic acid

DHA docosohexaenoic acid

Important in

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Cardiovascular function;

Brain function;

Rheumatoid arthritis

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Signs of essential fatty acid deficiency in non-ruminants

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Reduced growth rate;

Dy scaly skin;

Lack of sheen on hair;

Infertility;

Poor wound healing;

Irritating skin conditions

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Oxidation of fats is known as

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Rancidity

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Unsaturated fatty acids oxidised at double bond to produce

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Hyperoxides

Shorter chain fatty acids free radicals and taints and off-flavour compounds (aldehydes and ketones);

Catalysed by U.V. light, Cu, and Fe

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Antioxidants protect from

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Oxidation of fatty acids; Se, Vitamin E, beta-carotene; Synthetic versions added to feedstuffs to protect from oxidation

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Naturally occurring antioxidants

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Tocopherols (Vit E)

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Synthetic antioxidants

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Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT)

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Hydrogenation

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Conversion of unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids;

Hardens fat and improves keeping quality; much fat hydrogenated in the rumen

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Benefits of dietary fats

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Concentrated energy source;

Flavour / Palatability;

Satiety effect;

Fat soluble vitamin carrier;

Source of essential fatty acids;

Decreased feed dust;

Pelleting lubricant

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Main contributer of obesity is

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A high fat diet

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Clinical abnormalities associated with lipid metabolism

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Artherosclerosis heart disease and artherosclerotic plaque from cholesterol;

Low density lipoprotein - cholesterol and coronary heart disease;

High circulating triglycerides and coronary heart disease;

Fatty liver - increased liver lipogenesis - high fat or cholesterol diet

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Proteins are

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Complex organic compounds made up of C, H, O, N, and S; Have 16-18% nitrogen content;

Singular unit is an amino acid

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Chain of amino acids are called

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Peptides (dipeptides, tripeptides, polypeptides)

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Proteins found in

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All living cells;

Collagen, Keratins, elastin

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Essential amino acids

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Protein precursors which the animal is incapable of synthesizing

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Rumen micro-organisms can synthesize both

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Essential and non-essential amino acids allowing for very different dietary requirements from monogastrics

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Pigs, dogs, and rats require 10 amino acids

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Tryptophan, Threonine, Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, Lysine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Valine, Phenylalenine

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Cats and taurine

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Normally synthesized from methionine and cysteine but cannot be synthesized at sufficient rates in the cat and must be supplied in the diet

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Chickens essential amino acid

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have 10 plus glycine

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First limiting amino acids

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One or two essential amino acids limiting growth and production

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First limiting amino acids in poultry

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Methionine

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First limiting amino acids in pigs

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Lysine or tryptophan

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First limiting amino acids in equine

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Lysine

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First limiting amino acids in dairy

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Lysine and methionine

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Protein needed in ruminants as a

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Substrates for microbes which produce both essential and non-essential amino acids

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Amino acids used in ruminants come from either

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Microbial produced proteins and rumen undegradable proteins

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Effects of low protein

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Decreased intake and feed utilization;

Decreased growth rates;

Decreased PCV, red cell count;

Decreased wound healing;

Poor colostrum quality;

Catabolism of body proteins;

Decreased immune response

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Proteins are used as an energy source when

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Energy is limiting; Happens by deamination mainly in the liver producing urea;

Excretion of urea has an energy cost making this a very ineficient way to provide energy;

Can be used for weight loss but puts additional strain on kidneys and liver

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Proteins and amino acids as building blocks for

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Biological substrates such as enzymes, elastin, skeletal muscle

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Animal Feedstuffs are made up of

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Moisture; Carbohydrate; Protein; Lipids (Oil or Fat); Ash; Also vitamins, nucleic acids etc

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Most common system of feed analysis

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The proximate analysis system; the legal basis for declared analysis

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The proximate analysis system is made up of

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Moisture/Dry Matter (DM%);

Crude protein (CP);

Crude Fibre (CF);

Ether extract (EE) (Lipids);

Ash;

Nitrogen free extracts (NFE) (Carbohydrates)

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Dry Matter (DM)

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The percent of the feed that is not water/moisture;

Moisture and dry matter sum to 100%

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In order to compare nutrient concentration the feed must be at similar

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Dry matter %;

So nutrients are at comparative concentrations

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Nutrient content on labels listed on an

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As fed basis;

Listed in a % of the full feed including moisture (aka in the state it is fed)

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DM% =

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Dry sample weight / original sample weight

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DM is determine by

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Drying out the feed at 105 degrees for 16 hours until weight change stops

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Crude Protein (CP)

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Most common method for analysis of total protein concentration in farm and companion animal feeds

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Crude protein determination based on

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Nitrogen concentration - assumes protein contains 16% Nitrogen

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CP% =

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N% x 6.25

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Kjeldahl Method

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All free nitrogen converted to ammonia;

CP concentration based on N concentration which is based on ammonia concentration;

Assumption that all protein contains 16% N

Assumption that all N is from protein

Very crude estimate

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Ether Extract (EE) / Crude Fat %

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Crude estimate of the total lipid concentration in feed

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Ether extract determined by what process

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Feed is rinsed for a pre=determined period of time with petrolium ether;

Petrolium ether is evaporated off;

Left with feed minus the oil (as well as organic acids, sterols, and lipid soluble vitamins)

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Ether Extract (EE) / Crude Fat % consists of

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The lipid content of the feed as well as organic acids, pigments, sterols, and lipid soluble vitamins;

Crude measurement of lipid

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Crude Fibre (CF)

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An approximation of concentration of plant cell wall in feedstuffs (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin)

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Crude fiber is determined by

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Successively boiling sample in acid then alkali and weighing the residue;

What is removed does not consist of all of the cell wall content making this one of the most inaccurate measurements

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High levels of crude fiber likely indicate

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Low digestibility of the feedstuff; Indigestible by mammalian enzymes

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Ash

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An estimate of total inorganic matter or mineral concentration in feeds;

Supplies no energy value;

Organic Matter % (OM) + Ash % = 100%

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Essential mineral elements in ash

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Major: Ca, P, Mg, S, Na, K, Cl

Trace: Cu, Co, I, Zn

Non-essential elements: Al, Pb, etc..

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To determine ash content of feed

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Place feed in furnace for 4 hrs at 550-600 degrees Celcius

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OM is important because

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it is the energy yielding component of feed

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Nitrogen Free Extractives (NFE)

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Component of feed digestible by mammalian enzymes;

Whats left after all other fractions are removed;

Digestible carbohydrates (starches, sugars, pectins, organic acids, pigments);

Also contains some cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin

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NFE% =

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100 - (Moisture% + Ash% + CP% + CF% + EE%)

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NFE is the easy was to determine

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Utilizable feed (Estimate the energy value of diets)

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Van Soest Detergent System

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Determine plant cell walls and plant cell contents (Fiber analysis);

Based on the use of detergents and acids

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Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) consists of

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Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin;

Measure of total cell wall carbs (structural carbs or fiber);

Contains small concentrations of fiber bound protains, lignified nitrogen, minerals, cutin

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Acid detergent fiber (ADF) consists of

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Cellulose and Lignin;

Less digestible than NDF;

Good relationship with digestibility

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Acid detergent lignin (ADL) consists of

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Lignin

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Structural carbohydrates

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Plant cell wall;

Digest slowly and not completely;

Contains Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin

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Non- structural carbohydrates

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Plant cell contents;

Digest quickly and completely;

Contains starch, sugars, and pectin

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Most accurate measure of 'fiber'

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Neutral detergen fiber (NDF);

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Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) indicates

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Digestibility, filling effect, rate of digestion

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Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) determined by

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Boiling feed in sodium lauryl sulphate and EDTA (same as detergent);

The residue is NDF

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Acid detergent fiber (ADF) determined by

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Boiling feed in sulphuric acid

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Acid detergent lignin (ADL) determined by

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Very strong acid used to leave only lignin as the residue;

Most indigestible part of the cell wall;

Presence reduces the digestibility of cell wall

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Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamin concentrations are determined using

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Chromatography;

Detection devices generate electrical signal based on number of carbon atoms that exit column at different times;

Separation based on physical properties

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Chromotography graph

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Peaks at different times indicating content with the amount of mV indicating the amount of that substance present

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Minerals and Trace Elements

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Atomic absorption spectroscopy;

Technique available to determine the actual proportion of components in ash

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Atomic absorption spectroscopy

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Acid solution of sample heated in a flame;

Different elements release radiation at different specific wavelengths;

Vaporised atoms absorb light;

Amount of light absorbed proportional to concentration of element

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Calorimetry

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Energy measurement (gross energy)

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Productive capacity of all nutrients in feed organic matter

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Growth;

Maintain body temperature;

Athletic performance;

Immune response

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Calorimetry works by

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Heating known weight of feed and measuring temperature rise of water near feed;

Temperature rise in water jacket = energy released at combustion

Measured in calories or joules;

Technique is adiabatic = no heat added no heat lost

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Near infrared reflectance spectrosopy

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Powerful new feed analysis tool;

Used to predict CP, WSC, ADF, NDF but not ash or minerals;

Light shone through feedstuffs, different components cause different light scatterings (reflectance or absorption);

Calibrations required before each measurements

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Large variable component of feedstuffs lost to

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The animal

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Largest most variable component of feedstuffs is lost in

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The animals faeces

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Digestibility measures

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The proportion of feed constituent that is not excreted in faeces

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Digestibility types

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Dry matter digestibility (DMD); Organic matter digestibility (OMD); CPD; NDFD; GED

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Calculate digestibility

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Faecal DM / DM Intake = % Indigestibility;

Digestibility = 100 - % Indigestbility

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Calculate organic matter digestibility

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(Faecal DM - Faecal ash) / (Dry matter intake - Ash content) = OM Indigestibility;

OMD = 100 - OM Indigestibility

Higher % of ash in the faeces because becomes more concentrated (OM gets digested ash does not)

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Digestibility values determined by

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Measuring amount fed and collecting faeces for a number of days

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Average quality dog food

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Low fiber digestibility (likely higher in non-digestible substances such as lignin)

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Good quality dog food

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High fiber digestibility

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Digestible organic matter in the dry matter (DOMD)

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A measure of the concentration if digestible energy yielding nutrients in the feed DM

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Digestible energy concentration (DE)

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A more accurate estimate of concentration of digestibility energy yielding nutrients in feeds

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Apparent digestibility

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Determined through faecal collection and considers the entire amount as indigestible feed;

Faeces contains more than just undigested foods;

Micro organism; endogenous secretions; enzymes

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True digestibility

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Considers only the undigested feed as the indigestible amount (will be higher than the apparent digestibility because the amount indigestible is less)

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Factors effecting digestibility

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Feed composition:

Fiber or cell wall - digestibility very variable

Cell wall content - digestibility higher than fiber

Protein animal / vegetable - true digestibility usually 85 - 100%

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Concentrates usually have

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Higher digestibility than forages

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Fiber has a very limited digestibility in the

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dog and cat

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Chemical treatment of feeds to breakdown cell wall linkages

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Ammonia treatment of forages;

Sodium Hydroxide treatment of grains;

Urea treatment of grains / whole crop cereals;

Acid treatment of grains

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Physical treatment of feeds

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Rolling;

Grinding - reduces forage digestibility;

Crimping - inexact, not as effective as rolling;

Flake - moistened then rolled;

(Horses and sheep no benefit, cattle and pigs benefit total tract DMD)

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Heat treatment of feeds

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Micronization, Extrusion, Roasting;

Advantages with some cereals for ruminants;

May denature proteins in dog and cat foods;

Causes gelatinization of starch which makes it more digestible for more animal species

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Combination of heat treament and physical treatment

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Steam flaking

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Soybean flour in dog diets more digestible than

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Soybean grits

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Blended rice in dog diet more digestible than

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Whole rice

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Finer material tends to be more digestible because

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Greater surface area exposed to enzymes involved in digestion

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High temperature drying can reduce the digestibility of

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Meat and bone meal and poultry meal in dog and cat diets

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Maillard products

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Chemical alterations created by damaged proteins causing less digestibility

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High temperature drying in farm animal protein sources can

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Decrease digestibility (distillers dried grains and grass meal)

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Cattle digestion vs sheep digestion

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Cattle better digest long fiber while sheep better digest concentrates

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Factors affecting digestibility

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Species; Ruminant vs Non-ruminant; Cattle vs Sheep; Feed DE concentration

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As food passage rate increases digestibility

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Declines (Up to 12%);

Caused by feed allergies, more food, stress

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Compartmental digestion in the horse

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Important pre-cecal digestion of starch - too much makes to to the cecum could cause digestive upset (Colic);

Micronized corn is best; oat next best but cause freshness; If remove oats replace with cooked cereals to maintain pre-cecal digestion of starch

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Compartmental digestion in ruminants

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Protein digestion in the rumen = rumen degradability (Requires fistulated animals);

Needed to determine protein supply to the rumen micro organisms

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Rumen degradability estimates

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Solubility of feed protein;

Rate of protein disappearance for insoluble fraction;

Rumen retention time

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Best predictor of digestibility (for welfare of animal and total tract digestibility)

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Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)

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Tillery and Terry

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In-vitro digestibility assay of rumen fluid

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EFOS Method

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In-vitro digestibility assay of pig gastric, pancreatic, and microbial enzymes

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Winter milk production

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50% of the diet

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Winter finishing of beef cattle

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Up to 90% of the diet

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Straights

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Concentrate feed ingredients used as a sole identifiable dietary component (Eg. barley, beet pulp, oats)

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Blends

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A mix of straights no mineral added minimal processing

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Course mixes / muesli / crunches

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Mixes of concentrate feed ingredients where ingredients mixed with minimal processing individual ingredients often identifiable contains mineral and vitamin supplements formulated for specific species

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Compounds

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Mixes of concentrate feed ingredients blended together following mechanical and thermal processing contain mineral and vitamin supplements, flavours and other additives formulated for specific species;

Pellets, nuts, cubes, pencils, meals, crumbs

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Using supplements designed for one species for another can lead to

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Toxicity (high selenium salt for cows can kill a horse)

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What is quality?

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Digestibility of energy (available calories);

Supply of digestible protein;

Type of energy / differences between species;

Quality of protein / lysine content important;

Palatability;

Potential for toxins / plant or fungal metabolites that cause morbidity or mortality (Not as dangerous in ruminants)

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Feed ingredient classes

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Cereal grains;

Cereal by-products;

Oilseed by-products;

Sugar by-products;

Fruit by-products

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Cereal Grains

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Barley, wheat, maize, oats, sorghum (not used much)

Front 176

Cereal by-products

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Maize gluten feed, Maize gluten meal, maize distiller grains, pollard wheat bran, brewers grains

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Oilseed by-products

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Soyabean meal, soya hulls, rapeseed meal, sunflower seed meal, palm kernal meal, cotton seed meal

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Sugar by-products

Back 178

Molassed sugar beet pulp, Unmolassed sugar beet pulp, Cane molasses

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Fruit by-products

Back 179

Citrus pulp

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Barley; Energy supplement; Cereal grain

Back 180

One of the most popular cereals used;

Higher fiber lower starch than wheat;

Low pre-cecal digestibility in horses if uncooked;

Low in Ca, Low in Lysine

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Wheat; Energy supplement; Cereal grain

Back 181

High energy, high starch;

High risk of rumen acidosis;

Low in Ca, Low in lysine

Front 182

Maize; Energy supplement; Cereal grain

Back 182

High starch, low protein cereal grain;

Very high energy, highly digestible, high oil;

Should be heat treated for optimal digestion in many species;

Available as ground or flaked;

Low pre-cecal digestibility in horse;

Low Ca, Low lysine

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Oats

Back 183

High fiber cereal;

High in unsaturated oils;

Commonly used as straight feed for horses;

Causes excitable behavior in horses;

Also used for straight feed in ruminants and sheep

Front 184

Maize Gluten Feed; Cereal by-product

Back 184

Medium energy, medium protein;

Commonly used in ruminant diets;

Low in lysine;

High in fiber - less useful for other species;

Can be used in grower finisher pig and layer breeder poultry

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Pollard / Wheat bran; Cereal by-product

Back 185

Medium energy, medium protein;

Outer husks of wheat grains and screenings;

Low Ca;

Used to add fiber / laxative properties;

Often used solely to increase pelleting quality of mix

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Maize distillers grains; Cereal by-product

Back 186

Medium/high energy, Medium protein;

Very commonly used for ruminant diets;

Limited use for other species;

High fiber level;

Low in lysine

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Brewers grains; Cereal by-product

Back 187

Low/Medium energy, Medium/high protein;

Ruminant feed;

Usually based on barley grains but may have other types of cereals;

High protein, high fiber, high oil;

Usually fed wet / concentrate, very palatable

Front 188

Unmolassed sugar beet pulp; By-product of sugar industry

Back 188

High fiber by-product of sugar beet;

High energy for ruminants too much fiber for poultry;

Requires soaking if fed straight to horses;

Excellent source of slowly digestible carbs for ruminants

Front 189

Molased sugar beet pulp; By-product of sugar industry

Back 189

Ideal ruminant feed;

Not as high in fiber as unmolassed beet pulp;

Commonly used straight/ as a cool feed in horses;

Extensively used in pig diets except creep diets;

Very palatable;

Low in phosphorous

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Cane Molasses

Back 190

Low in protein, High sugar feed for all farm animals 65% sugar;

Very palatable - useful for shy feeders;

Aids pelleting; useful in course mixes prevents sorting;

High in potassium and salt, can cause scouring

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Citrus pulp; By-product of fruit processing industry

Back 191

Low protein, High energy for ruminants, Low energy for pigs;

Antinutritional factor for young pigs and poultry (limonin);

Limited use pigs and poultry;

Palatability is an acquired taste in ruminants;

Common straight feed in dairy cows

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Soyabean meal; Oilseed by-product

Back 192

High energy, High protein supplement;

Good source of lysine;

Antinutritional factor destroyed on heating;

Used extensively in diets for all species;

Very useful in young monogastric diets;

Very safe high quality high protein feed

Front 193

Soya Hulls

Back 193

Low protein, High fiber feed

Used as a source of digestible fiber in ruminant and pig diets;

Safe feed no antinutritional factor;

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Rapeseed meal; Oilseed by-product

Back 194

Medium energy, High protein feedstuffs;

Limited use in pig and poultry diets;

Often used to partially replace soyabean meal;

Antinutritional factors - glucosinolates and erucic acid

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Sunflower seed meal; Oilseed by-product

Back 195

Low energy, High protein feed;

Quality depends on protein and fiber content;

Sunflower hulls high fiber;

Low digestibility;

Good source of methionine

Front 196

Expelled Pal Kernel Meal; Oilseed by-product

Back 196

High fiber feed, Cheap source of energy;

Used as straight feed for ruminants in some areas;

May contain aflotoxins;

High saturated oil content;

Shell pieces may cause lameness if fed straight;

Low in lysine

Front 197

Cottonseed meal; Oilseed by-products

Back 197

High Protein supplement;

Low in lysine;

Limited in pigs and poultry;

May be sold on crude fiber / crude protein low fiber / high protein best;

Anti-nutritional factor called gossypol;

May contain aflotoxins

Front 198

Grass varieties

Back 198

Perennial ryegrass (head out 6 May - 12 June);

Italian ryegrass (head out 22 May - 28 May);

Cutting the grass keeps it from heading out;

Also: Cocksfoot; Meadow fescue; Brome grass; Timothy; Bent Grass; Meadowgrasses; Yorkshire fog; Crested dogstail etc.

Front 199

Species sown

Back 199

Perennial ryegrass- Early (64%), Late (6%);

Italian ryegrass - 19%;

Cocksfoot - 4%;

Timothy - 7%

Front 200

Old pasture have lower

Back 200

Yield and digestibility

Front 201

Chemical composition of grass differs between young and mature

Back 201

Young: CP (30%), CF (20%), Moisture (75-85%) Carbs (3-25%), Cellulose (20-30%), Hemi-cellulose (10-30%);

Mature: CP (3%), CF (40%), Moisture (65%), Carbs (5-30%), Cellulose (20-30%), Hemi-cellulose (10-30%)

Young: Has higher protein, lower fiber, higher moisture, lower carbs

Front 202

Change in digestibility with increasing maturity

Back 202

Decrease in digestibility with maturity

Front 203

Growth rate of grass through the year

Back 203

Lowest in winter, highest in may/june and august

Front 204

Relative cost of grass and other feeds

Back 204

Grazed grass < Silage < Corn gluten < Dairy ration

Front 205

Aims of grassland management

Back 205

Provide supply of high quality herbage over the growing season;

Avoid waste;

Avoid inefficient utilization by animals;

Provide feeding for winter

Front 206

Cattle graze for

Back 206

6 - 11 hours per day

Front 207

Most common time for cattle grazing is

Back 207

Just after dawn and just before dusk

Front 208

Movement of cattle while grazing

Back 208

Slow in uniform crop; Fast in variable crop

Front 209

Factors affecting intake herbage

Back 209

Animal Factors: Metabolic weight, production, stage of lactation;

Sward Factors: Herbage quantity, herbage quality;

Effort of grazing: Difficult conditions

Front 210

Application of slurry

Back 210

Allow 5 weeks from application to grazing;

Contains N, P, and K

Front 211

Full return of faeces and urine increases

Back 211

Yield by 20-40%

Front 212

Continuous stocking

Back 212

Stock have access to one area for entire grazing season

Front 213

Intensive continuous stocking

Back 213

Reduce number as grass supply drops

Front 214

Rotational Grazing (paddock grazing)

Back 214

Divide into number of similar sized paddock;

Stock moved in sequence around

Front 215

Strip grazing

Back 215

Move electric fence daily or every 12 hours;

Rotation cycle 21-30 days

Front 216

Leader-follower rotational grazing

Back 216

Two groups, one follows other;

Better use of grass, less waste;

Lambs ahead of ewes, calves ahead of older cattle (less likely to get parasites)

Front 217

Integrated grazing and conservation

Back 217

Subdivide pasture into 2 sections in ratio 60:40 (for beef cattle);

Early season graze 40%, conserve 60%;

Mid season graze 60%, conserve 40%;

End season graze 100%

Front 218

Alternate cutting and grazing

Back 218

Graze part, cut early season in mid season vice-versa;

Improves grass quality;

Can have shortage of grass for few weeks

Front 219

Zero grazing

Back 219

Harvest all grass and feed as silage (good utilisation but expensive)

Front 220

The greater the sward height

Back 220

The greater the dry matter yield

Front 221

Animal problems at pasture

Back 221

Parasites; Mineral deficiency / Toxicity; Bloat

Front 222

Bloat

Back 222

Common with diets high in legumes (Lucerne, Clover);

Problem with lush grass;

Control: Anti-foam in water, Provide some fibrous feed, Feed small quantities of pasture high clover

Front 223

Haymaking

Back 223

Reduce moisture content of forage to 20% or less;

Suppress fungal growth, thermophilic bacteria, molds (farmers lung);

Weather most important - drying conditions low humidity;

Mature herbage dries easier and quicker

Front 224

Effect of rain on hay quality

Back 224

Increases moisture content - prolongs enzyme actions, increases tossing required and leaching;

Encourages mold growth

Front 225

Nutrient losses during haymaking

Back 225

Plant enzymes; Oxidation; Mechanical damage; Leaching

Front 226

Silage

Back 226

Produced by controlled fermentation of crop at high moisture content;

Produces organic acids from bacterial action on sugars;

Front 227

Quantity of acids produced in silage proportional to

Back 227

The amount of sugar; Type of bacteria; Type of crop; Moisture content

Front 228

Two fermentation types

Back 228

Aerobic fermentation;

Anaerobic fermentation

Front 229

Aerobic Fermentation

Back 229

Air trapped in crop when ensiled;

Loss of carbohydrate by respiration;

Increased temperature could lead to protein denaturation

Front 230

Anaerobic Fermentation

Back 230

In absence of air anaerobic microbes (Lactobacilli, streptococci, pediococci) produce acid and preserve the crop;

Type and quantity of acid critical: Lactic acid desirable;

Clostridia produce butyric acid which leads to protein breakdown and poor fermentation

Front 231

Relationship between acid type and silage quality

Back 231

When lactic acid is high, Butyric acid ammonia nitrogen and pH is low (and vice versa)

Front 232

Moisture content of silage

Back 232

Low DM herbage (<18%) - Needs high level of acidity to check clostridial growth;

Dryer herbage (25-28% DM) - pH 4.4 adequate;

High DM herbage (30+%) - Initial fermentation to pH 4.8 adequate;

Front 233

Soluble carbohydrate content of silage depends on

Back 233

Grass species (ryegrass increases it);

Weather (poor decreases it);

Nitrogen fertilizer (decreases it);

Time of N application (< 1 month decreases)

Front 234

Require sugar levels higher than

Back 234

3% in fresh grass for preservation of silage

Front 235

Wilting to improve preservation

Back 235

Decrease effluent;

Increase dry matter;

26% DM normally results in good preservation

Front 236

Additves to improve preservation

Back 236

Used in difficult crops and difficult conditions;

May protect proteins and improve animal performance

Front 237

Value of silage as a feed

Back 237

Quality of silage: Energy content, protein content;

Amount animal eats: Taste, smell, etc.

Front 238

On-Farm assessment of silage quality

Back 238

Variable layers;

DM Content - how much water can be squeezed out;

ME Value - Leafiness, courseness of stem

Type of fermentation - well fermented (yellow green, fruity smell)

pH - check with lithmus paper

Front 239

Laboratory assessment of silage quality

Back 239

ME Value;

Digestible crude protein;

Ammonia content;

pH

Front 240

Importance of silage cutting date

Back 240

Late cutting means loss of 10 and 20 days regrowth respectively

Front 241

Silage making

Back 241

Exclusion of air; Final sealing; Effluent (wilted);

Front 242

Silage and Health

Back 242

Reasonably clean record; All visibly spoilt silage should be thrown away not given to animals;

Front 243

Dangers of Silage

Back 243

Moulds / black / contamination / excess fermentation / stemminess

Front 244

Moulds in Silage

Back 244

Aspergillus sp. linked to abortion in cattle and sheep;

Linked to COPD and lung problems in horses from mouldy hay

Front 245

Botulism

Back 245

Contamination by dead carcasses, soil, manure;

Clostridium botulinum may multiply in silage

Front 246

High ammonia levels in silage

Back 246

Associated with lameness and scour in dairy cows;

Inverse relationship between dry matter content of silage and lameness

Front 247

Wet, Low pH Silages

Back 247

High sugar, wet grass ensiled with an effective innoculant;

Highly acidic - low intakes, acidosis (especially when combines with high concentrate intake)

Front 248

Listeriosis

Back 248

Disease in cattle and sheep sometimes linked to feeding incompletely sealed big bale silage;

Listeria monocytogenes soil born, associated with aerobic seterioration

Front 249

Feed contains what kind of energy

Back 249

Chemical energy

Front 250

Many biological processes need energy

Back 250

Muscular contraction, digestion, absorption, circulation, excretion, respiration, maintenance of body temperature

Front 251

Energy containing products produced within body

Back 251

Milk fat and protein, adipose tissue and skeletal muscle GI tract cells, enzymes, hormones, white blood cells

Front 252

Animals need nutrients for

Back 252

Activity, Maintenance of body temperature, tissue production, biological process

Front 253

Compare energy required for general processes to

Back 253

Chemical energy supplied from feed

Front 254

Energy losses in animal nutrition

Back 254

Feed Gross Energy (GE) --> Digestibility (DE) --> Metabolisable Energy (ME) --> Net Energy (NE)

Front 255

Digestible Energy (DE) =

Back 255

GE - Faecal Energy

Front 256

Metabolisable Energy (ME) =

Back 256

DE - Methane and Urinary Energy

Front 257

Net Energy (NE) =

Back 257

ME - Heat Increment

Front 258

Energy Requirements

Back 258

Maintenance, Tissue Production, Activity

Front 259

Net energy used for

Back 259

Maintenance; Production of body growth and foetal growth

Front 260

The heat increment is largest and most important for

Back 260

Ruminants - also very variable depending on the feed

Front 261

Best estimate of available energy in feed is

Back 261

NE for calculated for cattle and sheep

Front 262

Feed NE values and animal NE requirements expressed

Back 262

Relative to the NE content of barley

Front 263

Feeds have two NE values

Back 263

UFL / UFV depending on what processes energy is used for (sometimes written as UFLI and UFVI)

Front 264

UFL

Back 264

For maintenance and lactation and slow growers

Front 265

UFV

Back 265

Rapidly growing animals

Front 266

1.00 UFL =

Back 266

The NE content of 1kg of air dry standard barley for milk production = 1700 kcal;

Animal requirements: maintenance and lactation

Front 267

Animals that use UFL

Back 267

Dairy cows/ewes in lactation, pregnancy or dry periods;

Dairy heifers or ewe lambs;

Wintering or slowly growing animals;

Breeding male cattle;

Dairy goats

Front 268

1.00 UFV =

Back 268

The NE content of 1kg of air dry standard barley for meat production at an animal production level (APL) of 1.5;

APL = (NEm = NEg) / NEm;

Animal requirement for maintenance and weight gain at a given maintenance : gain ratio

Front 269

Animals that use UFV

Back 269

Rapidly growing steers, bulls, beef heifers;

Fattening steers, bulls, beef heifers, lambs;

Cattle with daily gains > 1kg/d

Front 270

Daily UFL for maintenance special values

Back 270

Increase 10% for loose housed cows;

Increased by 20% for cows at pasture;

Reduced by 10% for dry beef cows

Front 271

Daily Dairy Cow UFL for maintenance =

Back 271

1.4 + 0.6 LWT/100

Front 272

Daily Sheep UFL for maintenance =

Back 272

0.033 x LWT^0.75;

Increased by 10% out-wintered ewes

Front 273

The higher you go with the fat content

Back 273

The more UFL you need per kg of milk

Front 274

Assumptions made in diet formulation

Back 274

That UFL values of the diet are additive;

Feeding concentrates reduces forage digestibility;

Diet digestibility reduced as feeding levels increase

Front 275

Feed conecntrates with forage decreases forage digestibility because

Back 275

The acidity of the rumen increases causes death of some of the bacteria

Front 276

Changes in body weight dairy cow;

1kg of body weight loss

Back 276

Supplies 3.5 UFL

Front 277

Changes in body weight dairy cow;

1kg of body weight gain

Back 277

Requires 4.5 UFL

Front 278

Changes in body weight dairy cow;

Loss of one unit body condition score

Back 278

Supplies 150 UFL

Front 279

Changes in body weight dairy cow;

Gain of one unit of body condition score

Back 279

Requires 200 UFL

Front 280

Protein synthesis in tissues such as

Back 280

Liver or muscle cell etc.

Front 281

Protein essential for life

Back 281

Cell turnover, blood cells, enzymes, hormones

Front 282

Growth and production by proteins

Back 282

Skeletal muscle, foetal development, milk production

Front 283

In large intestine bacteria can

Back 283

Digest and modify protein but is after site of absorption

Front 284

In Monogastrics:

Protein sources differ in their

Back 284

Digestibility and the proportion of absorbed amino acids used in body tissues

Front 285

The quality of protein sources may be assessed by

Back 285

Biological value = (Food nitrogen - [faecal nitrogen + urinary nitrogen]) / (Food Nitrogen - Faecal Nitrogen)

Front 286

Biological value measures

Back 286

The proportion of digested N that is used for protein synthesis in body tissue

Front 287

Biological value is high when

Back 287

The amino acid composition of the tissue being synthesized is similar to that of the feed

Front 288

Net Protein Utilisation (NPU) =

Back 288

Combines digestibility with biological value

Biological Value x Protein Digestibility

Front 289

The most important characteristics of protein quality for monogastric animals are

Back 289

Digestibility and amino acid profile

Front 290

Animal based protein sources have

Back 290

High biological value;

But have to move away from using some animal proteins (Mad cow scare)

Front 291

Ideal amino acid profile

Back 291

Ideal amino acid profile

Front 292

Essential amino acid index

Back 292

The sum of the proportion of each essential amino acid for a reference tissue (egg often used as a standard) that is provided by each essential amino acid in the feed

Front 293

Diets formulated on the basis of CP and

Back 293

The essential amino acids likely to be limiting in typical diets

Front 294

CP and essential amino acids for pigs

Back 294

Lysine, Methionine + Cystine and Threonine

Front 295

CP and essential amino acids for horses

Back 295

Lysine

Front 296

CP and essential amino acids for cats and dogs and poultry

Back 296

Many essential amino acids

Front 297

Younger animals, lactating animals, pregnant animal have

Back 297

Higher protein requirements

Front 298

Older animals have

Back 298

Lower protein requirements

Front 299

Ammonia in the rumen produced by

Back 299

Protein hydrolysis, peptide degradation, amino acid deamination

Front 300

Fermentation in rumen;

Bacteria, Protozoa Numbers

Back 300

1 billion to 10 billion bacteria per ml of rumen fluid;

100 thousand to 10 million protozoa per ml of rumen fluid

Front 301

Main rumen bacteria

Back 301

Bacteroides Amophillus; Bacteroides Ruminacola; Butyrivibrio Fibrosolvens;

Proteolytics 30% of biomass in rumen

Front 302

Bacteria and protozoa use protein breakdown products to

Back 302

Fuel their nitrogen requirements for multiplication in the rumen

Front 303

Some bacteria use ammonia

Back 303

Other only need amino acids

Front 304

For bacteria to properly convert protein

Back 304

Need sufficient supply of energy - or valuable feed protein gets lost as ammonia

Front 305

Use bacteria and protozoa breakdown products to

Back 305

Form non-essential and essential amino acids which are then digested and absorbed

Front 306

Microbial Protein Digestibility (True Digestibility)

Back 306

Bacteria (75%), Protozoa (90%), Common total biomass (75-80%)

Front 307

Microbial Protein Amino Acid Concentration

Back 307

Can vary with diet;

Assumed constant at 80% or close to it;

Not all microbial protein is amino acids absorbed by the animal

Front 308

Not all feed protein degraded in the rumen

Back 308

Rumen undegradable or Rumen by-pass protein

Front 309

High quality protein sources may be

Back 309

Protected from rumen digestion

Front 310

Bypass protein

Back 310

Straight through the rumen and right on out - can be caused with increased feed amount

Front 311

Absorbed amino acids not used with 100% efficiency

Back 311

Not enough energy supplied by the diet;

Not correct ratios of amino acids supplied (amino acid profile wrong);

Animal over-supplied with protein

Front 312

Crude protein paths in ruminant: Rumen degradable protein

Back 312

Rumen degradable protein --> Microbial protein --> Microbial Nucleic Acids / Microbial true protein (AA) --> Amino acids absorbed in small intestine (68% used in tissue)

Front 313

Crude protein paths in ruminant: Rumen undegradable protein

Back 313

Rumen undegradable protein --> Undergradable protein amino acids (AA) --> Amino acids absorbed in small intestine (68% used in tissue)

Front 314

The PDI Protein System

Back 314

Protein system used for ruminants in Ireland - Feed analysis, Nutritional advice

Front 315

The PDI Protein System: Feed Component;

PDI Value =

Back 315

Protein value of ruminant diets;

Microbial amino acids absorbed from the small intestine;

Amino acids supplied by undegradable dietary protein and absorbed in the small intestine

Front 316

The PDI Protein System: Animal Component

Back 316

Animal requirement for amino acids;

Maintenance requirement;

Production (milk, weight gain, gestation, wool growth)

Front 317

PDI =

Back 317

g of true protein truly digestible in the small intesting;

the PDI is made up of two protein fractions: PDIM and PDIA

Front 318

PDIA =

Back 318

g of dietary true protein undegradable in the rumen but truly digestible in the small intestine

Front 319

PDIM =

Back 319

g of mircrobial true protein that is truly digestible in the small intestine

Front 320

Each feed has two PDIM values

Back 320

PDIMN and PDIME

Front 321

PDIMN =

Back 321

g of microbial true protein that can be synthesized in the rumen from rumen available N;

Depends on the rumen degradability of feed protein

Front 322

PDIME =

Back 322

g of microbial true protein that can be synthesized in the rumen from the rumen available energy;

Depends on the supply of fermentable organic matter (FOM)

Front 323

Each feed as a

Back 323

Potential and an actual PDIM value

Front 324

The higher of PDIMN and PDIME is

Back 324

The potential PDIM value

Front 325

The lower of the PDIMN and PDIME is

Back 325

The actual PDIM Value;

Consider how much you could produce, the lower is the actual value (rate limiting)

Front 326

The PDI System in Practice

Back 326

PDIME + PDIA = PDIE;

PDIMN + PDIA = PDIN

Front 327

PDIN =

Back 327

g of true protein (amino acids) truly digestible in the small intestine when rumen degradable N limited microbial protein synthesis

Front 328

PDIE =

Back 328

g of true protein truly digestible in the small intestine when rumen available energy (FOM) limited microbial protein synthesis

Front 329

The PDI value of a particular feed =

Back 329

The lower of the PDIN or PDIE value

Front 330

Peripheral neuro receptors stimulate the hypothalamus

Back 330

Receptors in liver, GI tract, Skin;

Front 331

Secretions of peptides and hormones directly on the hypothalamus

Back 331

Peptides from gut, adipose, brain

Front 332

Control of intake by additive effects of

Back 332

Peptides and Hormones and Neuro receptors

Front 333

Metaboli control of intake

Back 333

Circulating control of nutrients;

Peripheral neuro receptors in liver and GI tract;

Tell animal if there is lots or few nutrients in blood or gut

Front 334

Most likely feed intake regulator in monogastrics is (animal feel hungry when concentrations decline)

Back 334

Glucose

Front 335

Most likely feed intake regulator in ruminants is (animal feels hungry when concentrations decline)

Back 335

Acetate and proprionate from rumen;

Front 336

Animals with high energy / protein requirements (Lactating animals, rapidly growing animals)

Back 336

Strive to eat more

Front 337

Animals eat more after

Back 337

Starvation or excersize

Front 338

Lipostatic regulation of feed intake

Back 338

Desire to maintain constant body weight or fatness;

Lost in many domestic species, wild animals rarely obese

Front 339

Leptin

Back 339

Hormone produced by adipose tissue important for lipostatic control of feed intake --> satiety factor (Full feeling);

Leptin absent from obese mice

Front 340

Other lipostatic controls

Back 340

Adipose tissue in abdomen reduces intake;

Fatty acids in liver disrupt peripheral neural receptor system that initiates feeding

Front 341

Thermostatic regulation of feed intake

Back 341

Thermoreceptors in hypothalamus and peripherally in skin;

Food digestion produces heat increment;

Reduce feed intake if too hot;

Increase feed intake if too cold;

Lots of heat produced from excreting unwanted protein

Front 342

Physical limitations to feed intake

Back 342

Tension receptors in the oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine ;

Stomach and distal duodenum in dogs and cats;

Rumen in ruminants;

Crop in birds

Front 343

Physical limitations especially important in

Back 343

High fiber diets (balloon in ruminants);

Fiber limits intake in pigs, poultry, cats and dogs;

Very important in highly productive of very hungry animals - animals can be full up and still hungry

Front 344

Psychological factors regulating feed intake

Back 344

Sight of other animals eating;

Related to appetite;

Desire of animal to repeat pleasurable experience

Front 345

Photoperiod effect on regulation of feed intake

Back 345

Most evident in deer

Front 346

Effect of ill-health on regulation of feed intake

Back 346

Immune response: tumor necrotic factor; interleukins reduce intake;

Progesterone increases intake, estrogen reduces intake;

Stress hormone reduce intake;

Infectious disease, gastrointestinal parasites, parturition

Front 347

Feed intake regulators: feed factors

Back 347

Palatability;

Nutrient concentration;

Filling effect;

Physical factors

Front 348

Palatability of feed effect on feed intake

Back 348

Sensory response of an animal to its food; Taste, smell, sight, texture, temperature;

Appetite increases intake of palatable feeds;

Important hen choice available;

Companion animal feeds formulated to be palatable

Front 349

Nutrient composition of feed effect on feed intake

Back 349

High nutrient concentration may lower intake;

Marginal nutrient deficiency increases intake;

Severe nutrient deficiency reduces intake

Front 350

Filling effect of food effect on feed intake

Back 350

Related to fiber content - more fiber = more filling

Front 351

Physical factors of feed effect on feed intake

Back 351

Dusty feeds reduce intake (feed gone bad or mouldy or musty)

Front 352

Feed intake regulation: Management factors

Back 352

Feed allowance;

Frequency of feeding;

Feeding routine;

Feeding environment

Front 353

Feed allowance effect on feed intake

Back 353

Ad-libitum or restricted feed access;

To feed ad-libitum you must accept a 10% feed loss

Front 354

Frequency of feeding effect on feed intake

Back 354

Increased feeding frequency increases intake (Overall? Or in a singular feeding?)

Front 355

Feeding environment effect on feed intake

Back 355

Trough space (group fighting over food);

Previous experience at feed trough (traumatised by previous bullying);

Group stresses / group feeding can increase intake

Front 356

Feed intake prediction

Back 356

Intake predicted based on energy required and size [body weight, egg/milk production, growing animals (current vs mature size), heat stress];

Front 357

Ruminants often fed high forage diets so

Back 357

Distention of the GI tract and filling effect of forage are very important factors

Front 358

Filling properties

Back 358

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin) related to space occupying / filling effect of diet

Front 359

Digestibility of feed

Back 359

Indigestible material adds to the filling effect of the feed

Front 360

Rate of digestion in the rumen

Back 360

Room created more quickly for more feed

Front 361

Rate of digestion in the rumen

Back 361

Room created more quickly for more feed

Front 362

Rumen retention time of forage particles

Back 362

Particle size: most importnat with sheep

Front 363

The Fill Unit System for Ruminants

Back 363

Designed for forage based diet formulation

Front 364

Animal Intake capacity

Back 364

Quantity of food the animal can eat voluntarily

Front 365

Daily intake capacity

Back 365

Expressed in Fill Units: Lactation Fill Unit (LFU), Cattle Fill Unit (CFU), Sheep Fill Unit (SFU)

Front 366

Forage Fill Value

Back 366

The maximum quantity of forage that could be eaten when fed ad-libitum as the sole feed;

Expressed in Fill Units (LFU, CFU, SFU) per kg of feed;

Used in practice to predict daily intake of feed

Front 367

Substitution rate

Back 367

The influence of any supplementary concentrates required on the voluntary intake of forage

Front 368

The Full Unit: Animal Component

Intake capacity: Always daily intake capacity

Back 368

Weight of animal (related to rumen size / energy requirements);

Production level (milk);

Stage of lactation;

Fatness;

Breed

Front 369

The Fill Unit: Forage Component

Back 369

Forages are given fill values called Fill Units (FU);

Reference forage have 1.00 Fill Units;

All feeds expressed relative to the reference forage;

Mainly related to cell wall or filling effect of forage;

Front 370

When concentrate supplements are fed

Back 370

Total DM intake is increased, Forage DM intake is reduced

Front 371

Substitution rate =

Back 371

Reduction in forage DM intake per kg of concentrate DM fed;

Rate usually varies from 0 to 1.0

Front 372

Substitution rate depends on

Back 372

Difference in energy required by animal, and energy supplied by forage alone;

Hungry animal low substitution rate, well fed animal high substitution rate;

Increased milk production or energy requirements leads to decreased substitution rate

Front 373

Substitution rate for high LFU forage is

Back 373

Less than substitution rate for lower LFU forages

Front 374

Mineral Types

Back 374

Macro minerals and Trace Minerals

Front 375

Vitamin Types

Back 375

Fat Soluble and Water Soluble

Front 376

Deficiencies in minerals cause

Back 376

Metabolic disorders

Front 377

Amount of mineral retained =

Back 377

Feed intake - faecal and urine output;

Feed is main intake;

Feed may contain minerals that interfere with absorption

Front 378

Short or long term imba;ances of minerals

Back 378

Body reserves may compensate for imbalances in short term;

Metabolic disorders occur when body reserves cannot be mobilised to balance intake and requirement

Front 379

Macro Minerals - Needed in high quantity

Back 379

Calcium, Magnesium, Phophorous, Sodium, Sulphur;

Usually have no issue getting plenty in the diet

Front 380

Calcium involved in

Back 380

Blood clotting, enzyme action, muscle contraction - milk fever;

Metabolisation from bone decreases with age - older animals more prone to milk fever;

Ca requirement at lactation about twice that amount needed in last week of pregnancy;

Calcium required for egg shell formation

Front 381

Calcium metabolism

Back 381

Tightly controlled (unusual for mineral);

Under control of 3 hormones - Calcitonin, Parathyroid hormone, Vitamin D3 (conversion to active form dependent upon magnesium)

Front 382

Hypocalcaemia

Back 382

Milk Ca output increases at calving;

Ca in blood falls;

Takes 24 hours for absorption to increase and 48 hours for bone to respond;

Delay causes drain on Ca and leads to hypocalcaemia

Front 383

Calcium deficiency in cows (milk fever)

Back 383

Most within 24 - 48 hours of calving;

Death due to bloat and decreased heart activity;

Low Ca can increase incidence of left displaced abomasum

Front 384

Prevention of Ca deficiency in cows

Back 384

Increase absorption efficiency of dry cow - restrict Ca intake to increase absorption efficiency;

Supplement Vitamin D3 - only give near calving;

Supplement magnesium - stimulates mobilization of bone Ca

Front 385

Prevention of Ca deficiency in cows

Part 2

Back 385

Ca:P ratio is idea at 1:2; Ca absorption maximum - supplement P (expensive)?;

Calcium Supplements - Limestone (34% Ca), di-calcium phosphate (22% Ca)

Front 386

Prevention of Ca deficiency

Part 3

Back 386

Cationic : Anionic Balance;

Acidification of diet before calving increases Ca uptake from intestine

Front 387

Magnesium

Back 387

Enzyme activator;

Nerve impulse control;

98% bound in bone and other tissues;

Needs continuous supply in diet - limited fee pool in circulation;

Availability 15-30% absorbed in rumen

Front 388

Magnesium deficiency in cattle and sheep

Back 388

Grass tetany (staggers);

Animals on spring grass (low Mg);

Sodium for Mg absorption may be low;

Slow development in cattle in autumn - if animal stops eating (bad weather) or handling stress;

Rapid action to death;

Mg is conserved in forage usually OK

Front 389

Mg Deficiency Prevention

Back 389

Feed concentrate higher in Mg during times of low grass Mg;

Mg bullets dissolved in the rumen;

Mg licks - Bitter so mask with molasses;

Mg in water;

Dust pasture with calcined magnesite (be careful cause rain will wash away);

Use potassium fertilizer in autumn

Front 390

Phosphorous

Back 390

Present in many essential body substances (Nucleic acids, ATP);

Primary deficiency results in poor thrift. Often associated with Ca deficiency;

P easy to measure in blood

Front 391

Dietary Phosphorous

Back 391

P requirements typically 80% of Ca requirement;

Grass has 50% as much P as Ca;

Cereals high in P and balance deficit;

All grass diet can be short of P;

Animals on non-cereal supplements (maize) can be short of P

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Sodium

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Major cation in blood;

Acid-base balance;

Transmission of nerve impulses;

Nutrient absorption across gut;

Deficiency results in reduced performance;

Salt

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Sodium deficiency

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Rare!

Spring pastures;

Caused by lots of potassium fertilizer - increases P uptake and reduces sodium uptake by plant

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Sulphur

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Essential for rumen micro-organisms;

Synthesis of sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and cystine);

Sheep with rapid wool growth need more sulphur;

Deficiency rare excess may affect availability of other trace minerals;

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Trace Elements

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Required in small amounts;

Involved with enzyme activity mostly;

Most not of practical significance;

Interactions between trace elements can alter absorption and availability;

Trace elements more necessary for growth - problems in growing not lactating animals

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Signs of trace element deficiency

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Very variable:

Reduced fertility;

Reduced growth rate;

Be sure it is primary cause of problem because it is often not

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Copper

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Iron incorporation to haemoglobin;

Enzyme systems;

Oxygen metabolism

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Signs of Copper deficiency

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Changes in coat color (lack of pigment);

Reduced fertility and ill thrift;

Regional problem with animals on home-grown feed;

Liver copper best indicator

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Copper supplementation

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Pasture dressing with copper sulphate;

In feed supplement (copper oxide, sulphate, proteinated copper);

Rumen bolus of copper oxide needles;

Injections (dont use in horses);

Toxicity (especially in sheep)

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Selenium

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Selenium and Vitamin E act as antioxidants;

Deficiency causes cell death (white muscle disease in calves);

Sub clinical deficiency common - poor growth, increased mastitis;

Glutathione peroxidase used as indicator to measure selenium;

Selenium toxicity in horses - regional (some weeds accumulate Se)

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Selenium supplementation

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Improved fertility;

Less retention of foetal membranes;

In feed - sodium selenite, proteinated forms;

Rumen bolus;

Injection;

In anthelminthic - Panacur SC

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Cobalt

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Needed for synthesis of vitamin B12;

Deficiency - poor growth, susceptible to parasites, ketosis and weight loss in cows, can be induced by high Mn;

Not measured in blood but response to supplementation observed;

Supplement with cobalt sulphate

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Zinc

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Deficiency causes - skin lesions, ill thrift, lameness (keratin synthesis), mastitis, unlikely to be common deficiency;

Supplements - Zinc oxide, sulphate, Zinc Mthionine Proteinate

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Iodone

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Involved in thyroid hormone formation;

Primary deficiency or secondary due to Giotregens in feed (kale, cabbage);

Deficiency - reduced fertility, week and hairless young born, regional

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Iodine deficiency

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Diagnose at post-mortem by weight of thyroid gland (large if low iodine);

Herbage low;

Supplement - potassium iodide, calcium iodide, iodized salt lick, seasweed meal;

Accumulates in milk - toxicity?

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Iron

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Formation of haemoglobin;

Deficiency - anaemia (not common);

Soil contains iron - housed animals on all milk diet develop deficiency (pigs);

Excess iron can reduce copper uptake

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Manganese

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Enzyme activator;

Deficiency - impaired fertility and growth;

Supplement with manganese oxide or manganese sulphate;

Proteinated manganese

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Mineral stores

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Good storage - Ca, P, Na, Cu, Se - if deficient for weeks, no great problem;

Medium Store - I - protected for 2-3 weeks;

Poor store - Mg, Co - need daily supplement

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Proteinate versus inorganic form

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Mineral bound to amino acid or small protein;

Absorption like peptide not mineral;

Maintains more bioactivity;

Cost ?

Cu, Zn, Mn

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Vitamins

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Organic molecules required in small amounts;

Supplementation usually generous to cover all conditions;

Fat soluble - A, D, E, K;

Water soluble - B complex, C

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Vitamin A (Retinol)

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Carotenoids in green plants precursors for vitamin A give yellow colour to milk, fat;

Involved in maintenance of epithelial cell lining and vision;

Often supplemented - not toxic till over 100x recommended value;

Degrades over time - supplement on non-green food

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Vitamin D3

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Involved in calcium regulation;

High in hays and can be synthesised in skin from UV;

Deficiency - rickets;

Toxicity due to overdose in treatment of milk fever;

Often supplemented dirrectly - winter no UV, housed animals

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Vitamin E (alpha tocopherol)

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With selenium acts as antioxidant;

Present in fresh green feed drops in storage (silage low);

Deficiency more common after winter - muscle weakness, sudden death;

Supplement either vitamin E directly or selenium;

Unstable in moist feed - proprionic treatment of grain destroys it;

High fat diet needs more vitamin E

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Vitamin K

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Synthesized by rumen bacteria;

Involved in blood clotting;

Primary deficiencies rare;

Some clover hay contains warfarins that block clotting mechanism - vitamin K is antidote in dogs

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Vitamin B complex

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Range of vitamins act as co-enzymes;

Ruminants synthesize B vitamins by rumen microbes;

Synthesis needs cobalt;

Thiamine (vitamine B1) deficiency where thiaminase activity high (sugar/starch diet acidosis);

Result in cerebro-cortical necrosis

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Vitamin B Complex Part 2

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B1 and B12 occasionally supplemented in cattle and horses;

Common supplement in pig and poultry rations;

Appetite stimulants?

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Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

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Most can synthesize (except human and guinea pig);

Deficiency in farm animals rare!