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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Macrominerals (Major)
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3.45% of body weight
-Calcium (Ca+) -Phosphorous (P-) -Sodium (Na+) -Chlorine (Cl-) -Magnesium (Mg+) -Potassium (K+) -Sulfur (S-) |
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Trace minerals (micro)
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0.55% of body weight
-Copper (Cu) -Cobalt (Co) -Fluorine (F) -Iodine (I) -Iron (Fe) -Manganese (Mn) -Molybdenum (Mo) -Selenium (Se) -Zinc (Zn) |
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Classified as Essential Minerals (Micro)
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-Ni
-Si -Vanadium -Chromium -Tin |
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Essential Minerals
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Possibly Essential Minerals
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Under investigation:
-Arsenic -Barium -Bromine -Cadmium -Strontium |
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Nonessential Minerals
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-Aluminum
-Antimony -Lead** -Mercury** Found in bone, can accumulate **Very TOXIC when occur in high amounts |
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Potentially Toxic Minerals
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Classified as Toxic Due to:
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Toxicity
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General Functions of Essential Minerals
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1. Constituent of skeletal structure
Ca, P, Mg 2. Maintain osmotic pressure Na+, K+, Mg+ |
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General Functions of Essential Minerals
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General Functions of Essential Minerals (slide 2)
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Mineral Toxicity Graph
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How are Minerals Excreted?
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Factors Affecting Mineral Requirements
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Calcium Sources
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Functions of Calcium
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Other Functions of Calcium
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Calcium in Bone
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Calcium Deficiency
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-P and Mg can produce deficiency symptoms as well
-Same deficiency symptoms as vitamin D -Including reduced growth -Ricketts -Osteomalacia -Osteoporosis |
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Ricketts (Calcium Deficiency
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-Young animals
-Misshapen bones, enlarged joints, lameness and stiffness |
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Osteomalacia (Calcium Deficiency)
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-Mature animals
-Softening of bone due to decalcification |
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Osteoporosis (Calcium Deficiency)
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-decalcification of bone w/a reduction in bone mass
-20 million Americans, 80% women -Bone mass decreases after menopause |
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Calcium Deficiency Results From
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-Absence of vitamin D (helps movement of Ca)
-Low Ca intake -Low P intake -Abnormal Ca:P ratio -High fat diet, Ca soap formation -High requirement during pregnancy & lactation |
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Calcium Deficiency in Dairy Cows
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-Milk Fever:
-$10 million loss per year -high producers 12-72 hours post calving -blood Ca drops to 4-5 mg% -cow typically lose control of hind legs -give calcium gluconate I.V. |
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Calcium: phosphorous ratio in diet formulation
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-Ideal is 2:1 to 1:1
-Bone: have a ratio of 1.67:1, Ca to P in hydroxyl apatite -Why not 10:1? -high Ca & low P, formation of insoluble CaPO4 in the lumen -if high P and low Ca, also have reduced absorption |
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Sources of Phosphorous
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-Animals sources: meat & bone & fish meal
-Low in roughages but high in concentrates -Commercial sources: -dicalcium phosphate (Dical) -monocalcium phosphate (Monocal) -defluorinated rock phosphate (F removed) |
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Phytate Phosphorous in Plant Source
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Phytate Phosphorous Present In
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Phytase
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-Commercial phytase is available
-Intrinsic phytase activity -is high in wheat products |
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Phosphorus for Ruminants
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-use of total phosphorus is adequate
-bacterial and fungal phytases |
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Functions of Phosphorus
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-Similar functions as calcium
-Part of hydroxyl apatite -Acid-base balance (HPO4-) -Carbohydrate metabolism (phosphorylated intermediates) |
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Phosphorous (P-) Function
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-80% in bone
-20% in soft tissues -Teeth -PO4- bonds -high energy bonds, ATP, ADP -Phospholipids (lecithin/phosphatidyl choline) -DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP |
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Phosphorus Deficiency
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-Especially a concern in tropical & subtropical areas - soils are deficient in P
-Symptoms are similar to Ca & vitamin D deficiency -Ricketts and Osteomalacia -Condition known as: -'pica' which is also referred to as: depraved appetite -animals will eat almost anything they see: soil, fences, ect. |
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Phosphorous Toxicity
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-Urinary Calculi - water belly (steers) or kidney stones
-1/3 of the P in grains is digested & utilized -2/3 of the P is in the form of Phytate -Microbes can break down & make Phytate P available -Phytase |
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Functions of Magnesium
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-Structural component of bone (60-70% of Mg)
-Bone ash: 0.5-0.7% Mg -Enzyme activation, is complexed w/ATP, ADP, & AMP, enzyme activator in carbohydrate & lipid metabolism, binds messenger RNA to ribosomes -Arginase = metalloenzyme, Mg is a functional part -a urea cycle enzyme |
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Symptoms of Magnesium Deficiency
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-Vasodilation (reduces bl. pressure)
-Hyperirritability, convulsions -Tetany, I.e. grass tetany or grass staggers (also known as hypomagnesemia) -Typical symptoms: -nervousness -tremors -twitching of facial muscles -staggering gait & convulsions |
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Prevention of Grass Tetany
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-Magnesium enema: give 60g MgCl2 in 200 ml of water
-Feed 1:1:1, MgO:TM. Salt:Grain -Start 2 weeks before turning cattle on pasture |
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Magnesium Supplementation
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-Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3
-Magnesium oxide MgO -Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) - MgSO4 |
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Functions of Sodium
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-osmotic balance
-acid base balance -absoption of carbohydrates & AA (Na+ pump) -Transmission of nerve impulses -body content is ~0.2% |
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Sources of Sodium
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-Plant & plant products are poor sources (0.01 tp 0.06%)
-animal products are good sources (meat meals, meat & bone meal, 0.1 to 0.8%) -especially those of marine origin: fish meals |
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Sodium (sodium chloride, salt)
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-usual practice is to supplement rations (diet)
-0.3 to 0.5% of the ration (diet) -or free choice salt blocks -salt, salt+iodine, salt+all trace minerals |
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Sodium Deficiency
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-during lactation (Na+ & Cl- secreted in milk)
-rapidly growing animals (fed cereal or forage based diets) causes reduced growth -under tropical conditions (Na+ loss in sweat) -decreased osmotic pressue --> dehydration --> weakness -poor growth --> reduced carbohydrate & AA absorption |
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Sodium deficiency - Pica
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-'salt craving'
-licking of wood, soil, or sweat of other animals -loss of appetite, decreased growth, unthrifty appearance, reduced milk production, weight loss |
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Sodium & Nutritional Wisdom
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-sodium is the only nutrient for which most animals show nutritional wisdom
-nutritional wisdom is when an animal detects a nutrient deficiency & seeks out a source of that nutrient -very toxic |
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Chlorine
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-closely associated w/Na+
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Functions of Chlorine
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-regulation of osmotic pressure
-HCl, gastric juice - protein digestion -electrolyte -Cl required for amylase activity |
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Chlorine Deficiency
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-deficiency only on purified or concentrated diets
-reduced growth, reduced milk production, depraved appetite, emaciation -Chlorine deficiency (hypochloremic): may lead to an abnormal increase in alkali (bicarbonate) or alkalosis |
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Potassium
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-After Ca & P, potassium is next most abundant mineral
-represents 0.3% of body dry matter (2/3 in skin & muscle) |
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Functions of Potassium
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-osmotic balance
-acid-base balance (cation/anion balance) -transmission of nerve impulses -activator of cofactor in enzyme systems: -adenosine triphosphatase -carbonic anhydrase -salivary amylase |
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Sources of Potassium
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-content in plants generally high (alfalfa > 2.0%)
-excess K can be problem for dairy cows fed alfalfa -grains (0.3-0.8%) -vegetable proteins (1.0-2.5%) -animal products (0.3-2.0%) |
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Potassium Deficiency
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-is rare, has to be induced
-reduced appetite -decreased growth, weakness, tetany -degeneration of vital organs, nervous disorders, diarrhea |
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Sulfur (S-)
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-not essential for normal production function
-organic metabolites are essential -S- containing AA -Glycoproteins -small quantities of inorganic sulfur in the body (as sulfates) -almost all sulfur is contained in methionine & cysteine (both protein bound) |
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Sulfate forms occur in
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Chondroitin sulfate
-cartilage -bone -tendons -blood vessels -HEPARIN |
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Sulfur & Ruminant animals
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-some inorganic sulfate is present in forages
-rumen microbes: incorporate sulfate into S-containing AA (only few species) -sulfur requirement of rumen microbes -insufficient S -reduced microflora -reduction in digestibility -optimum level in ruminant diets: 0.6-0.24% -not problem in diets w/adequate protein level -rumen bypass methionine (protected) |
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Sulfur Deficiency in Ruminant animals
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-reduced weight gain, appetite
-decreased wool growth (sheep) -dullness, weakness, emaciation -dairy cattle: decreased intake, decreased DM digestibility & milk production |
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Inorganic Sulfur
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Monogastric animals:
-2 wk old pigs -fed purified diets containing 0.8% methionine -tolerated 1/2 met replaced w/inorganic sulfate -no effect on weight gain, feed/gain ratio, collagen content of tendons |
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Micro-Trace minerals
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-takes long time to induce deficiencies & toxicity
-geographical deficiency problems |
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Fluorine
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-1920's - use of phosphorus supplements containing excessive F increased toxicosis in animals
-1942 - correlation between F concentration in drinking water & community prevalence of dental carries -most plants - limited ability to absorb F from soil -forages contain 2-20 ppm F (DM basis) -Cereals & byproducts 1-3 ppm F -Major source for humans is water -source for animals is mineral supplements & food ingredients (esp. bone, meat & bone meal) |
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Flourine - Bones & Teeth
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-0.02% to 0.05% of the apatite molecule
-soft tissues & fluids rarely contain more than 2-4 ppm) -causes crystals to become: -larger -harder -more resistant to acid |
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Fluorine Toxicity
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Chronic fluorosis in grazing livestock
1. continuous consumption of high-F supplements 2. drinking water high in F (3-15 ppm or >) 3. grazing F-contaminated forages close to industrial plants -eg. phosphate ore processors, aluminum, steel, copper smelters, brick & ceramic product factories, coal fired electricity generating plants |
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Levels of Fluorine Toxicity
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-1 ppm - reduction in dental carries
(1 ppm added to water in some locations) -2 ppm - mottled enamel -8ppm - osteosclerosis - abnormal hardening -110 - reduced growth, inhibition of enolase in glycolysis -2 ppm F is upper limit for the F concentration in water for livestock & poultry -2 ppm can cause mottling (dental fluorosis), serious toxicity problems observed when F>5 ppm |
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Preventing Fluorine Toxicity
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-Know sources of supplemental phosphate
-Sources of water that could potentially cause problems -wells on ranches w/toxicity problems: water: 4 to 12 ppm F |
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Copper (1)
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-Formation of hemoglobin
-Ceruloplasmin (feridoxase, contains Cu) Conversion between ferric (Fe3+) & ferrous (Fe2+) forms, permits binding to iron transport protein transferrin or incorporation into hemoglobin or myoglobin -Oxidation - reduction reactions Cu2+ cytochrome oxidase in oxidative phosphorylation |
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Copper (2)
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-Component of enzymes w/oxidase functions (e.g. tyrosinase, amine oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase)
-Formation of melanin - skin, hair, pigments -Activation of amylase -Integrity of myelin sheath -cross-linking of connective tissue (collagen) -component of lysyl oxidase (adds an OH group to lysine & permits cross-linking) |
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Copper Homeostasis
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-controlled by rate of absorption
-regulated by intestinal mucosa -protein: metallothionein (Cu & Zn) -absorption by active transport & diffusion -90% of Cu, transported by ceruloplasmin (metalloprotein) |
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Copper Absorption
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Absorption can be decrease by:
-dietary phytates -high levels of Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mo -Excretion into bile, fecal excretion Absorption: -Adult monogastrics: 5-10% -Young animals: 15-30% -Ruminant animals: 1-3% |
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Copper (3)
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-CuSO4 - used as a growth promotant in young swine
-Sheep - very susceptible to copper toxicity -Accumulates in the liver, necrosis of cells, jaundice |
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Copper Toxicity in Sheep
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-Copper levels as low as 10 ppm has caused toxicity when molybdenum is low (<3ppm)
-Toxicity often occurs when trace mineral supplements designed for cattle are fed to sheep |
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Cattle Breed & Copper Toxicity
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-Holsteins can tolerate 100 ppm copper without problems
-Jerseys are susceptible to copper toxicity at >50ppm |
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Copper Deficiency
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-Poor growth
-Depigmentation of hair -Scouring as a secondary symptom Wool: Depigmentation decrease: -growth -tensile strength -crimp (disulfide bridges) -stringy or steely wool -Anemia -Nervous lesions: inability to coordinate bodily movements |
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Molybdenum Functions
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Metalloenzymes:
-purine breakdown -xanthine oxidase Hypoxanthine & Xanthine --> uric acid -Aldehyde oxidase -reduction of cytochrome C -electron transfer chain |
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Molybdenum Deficiency
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-Not reported under practical conditions
-No characteristic symptoms -Requirements for rats & young chickens are less than 0.2 ppm |
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Cobalt
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-Constituent of Vitamin B12
-Same deficiency symptoms as Vitamin B12, deficiency symptoms are due to a deficiency of Vitamin B12 |
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Sources of Cobalt
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-Most feedstuffs contain adequate levels of Co
-Soil deficiency is primarily in Florida & East Coast states |
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Toxicity of Cobalt in Ruminant animals
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-Wide safety margin between toxicity & requirement
-Unlikely under practical conditions -Poorly retained in the body vs. copper, excess is excreted |
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Iron
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-60-70% in hemoglobin & myoglobin
-oxidation - reduction reactions, electron transfer system -cytochromes & flavoproteins |
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Sources of Iron
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-Green leafy materials, most legumes, seed coats
-Feeds of animal origin: -meat & bone meal, meat meal, blood meal -Milk is a poor source, for animals under intensive conditions |
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Iron Deficiency
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-Decreased numbers of RBCs
-Sows: unless kept outdoors, no access to soil or pasture -Milk is deficient in iron -Injections of iron dextran |
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Iron Deficiency - Baby Pig Anemia
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-most common iron deficiency
-Signs: -pale skin -transparent ears |
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Iron Deficiency - Signs
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-Unthrifty appearance, listlessness
-Heavy breathing, enlarged heart -Diarrhea (secondary symptom) |
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Selenium in Soil
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-Soil concentration is between 0.1 and 2 ppm, average = 0.3 ppm
-high seleniferous soils: 2 to 10 ppm Se, potentially toxic to livestock -low seleniferous soils: supplement Se |
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Functions of Selenium
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-Scavenges free radicals
-Vitamin E absorption & retention -Recent discovery: involved in the synthesis of thyroid hormones |
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Selenium Deficiency Symptoms
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-Ruminants: white muscle dz
-vitamin E & selenium Monogastric animals: edema (membrane degradation) -Suppressed immune system -Impaired reproduction |
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Selenium Toxicity Symptoms
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Selenium Regulated by FDA
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-FDA allows only 0.1 ppm of added selenium
-Maximum Tolerable Concentration is 2.0 ppm |
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Iodine
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-Thyroid gland: contains 50% of body I
-Triodothyronine (T3) -Thyroxine (T4) -Regulated basal metabolism |
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Iodine Deficiency
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-Goiter, enlarged thyroid gland
-hairless at birth |
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Goitrogenic Substances
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-Enlarged thyroid gland
-Interfere w/synthesis of T3 & T4 -Crops which are members of the Brassica family |
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Goitrogenic Substances (2)
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Iodine Supplementation
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-granular iodized salt
-iodized salt blocks |
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Manganese Functions
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-enzyme activation (as Mn2+)
pyruvate carboxylase & cholesterol synthesis -phosphate transferases (CHO metabolism) -decarboxylases -enzymes involved in synthesis of mucopolysaccharides & glycoprotein |
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Deficiency of Manganese (1)
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-may be promoted by high dietary levels of Ca & P
-reduced growth -low manganese diets for cows & goats cause depressed or delayed estrous & conception & increased abortion -skeletal abnormalities: "perosis" (slipped tendon) in young chickens, related to cartilage formation |
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Deficiency of Manganese (2)
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-Perosis (poultry)
-Poor bone development -Altered glucose metabolism |
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Zinc
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Zinc (2)
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Zinc Homeostasis
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-controlled by rate of absorption
-regulated by intestinal mucosa -protein: metallothionein (Cu & Zn) |
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Zinc Absorption
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Zinc Deficiency Symptoms
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-decreased growth, appetite
-aggravated by high levels of Ca in the diet -skin lesions: -reddening of skin, eruptions, scabs (Parakeratosis) -Reduced feathering -Reduced immune function |
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Potentially Toxic Minerals
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- Aluminum
- Arsenic - Cadmium - Lead |
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Aluminum
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Metabolism of Aluminum
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Aluminum Toxicity
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Aluminum Toxicity in Animals (1)
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Aluminum Toxicity in Animals (2)
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Arsenic (1)
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Arsenic (2)
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Clinical Signs of Arsenic Toxicity
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Arsenic (3)
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Arsenic: Chronic toxicosis in cattle
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Cadmium
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Aspects of Cadmium Metabolism
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Cadmium Toxicosis
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Cadmium Toxicosis Symptoms
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-decreased feed intake
-reduced growth -infertility -liver & kidney damage -scaly skin -anemia -enlarge joints |
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Sources of Lead in the Environment
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-environmental lead can occur in plants, soil & water , hazard to grazing livestock
-soils, rocks, vehicle exhaust, pipes, paints, soldered Cu piping, batteries -lead smelting & mining areas can contaminate pastures |
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Lead Metabolism
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-gastrointestinal absorption, also skin & respiratory
-about 40% of absorbed lead is deposited in the skeleton relatively immobile -accumulates in liver & kidney -excreted in bile & urine |
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Metabolic effects of Lead
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-lead inhibits enzymes dependent on the presence of free sulfhydryl groups
-interferes w/heme synthesis -acute toxicity is the main issue -impaired cardiac performance, neuronal degeneration |
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Treatment of Lead Toxicity
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-treatment w/chelating agents to increase urinary excretion of lead & bile
-e.g. thiamin-EDTA -caution: loss of essential metals is also enhanced (Zn, Cu, etc.) |
