Nutrition Exam 1

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nutrition

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the science that studies food and how food nourishes our body and influences our health

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chronic diseases

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diseases that come on slowly and can persist for years, often despite treatment

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wellness

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a multidimensional, lifelong process that includes physical, emotional, social, occupational, and spiritual health

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nutrients

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chemicals found in foods that are critical to human growth and function

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organic

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a substance or nutrient that contains the elements carbon and hydrogen

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macronutrients

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nutrients that our body needs in relativity large amounts to support normal function and health; carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are macronutrients

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carbohydrates

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the primary fuel source for our body, particularly for our brain and for physical exercise

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fats

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an important energy source for our body at rest and during low-intensity exercise

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proteins

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the only macronutrient that contains nitrogen; the basic building blocks of proteins are amino acids

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micronutrients

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nutrients needed in relatively small amounts to support normal health and body functions; vitamins and minerals are micronutrients

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vitamins

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organic compounds that assist us in regulating our body's processes

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metabolism

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the process by which large molecules, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, are broken down via chemical reactions into smaller molecules that can be used as fuel, stored, or assembled into new compounds the body needs

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fat-soluble vitamins

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vitamins that are not soluble in water but are soluble in fat; these include vitamins A, D, E, and K

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water-soluble vitamins

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vitamins that are soluble in water; these include vitamin C and the B-vitamins

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minerals

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inorganic substances that are not broken down during digestion and absorption and are not destroyed by heat or light; minerals assist in the regulation of many body processes and are classified as major minerals or trace minerals

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major minerals

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minerals we need to consume in amounts of at least 100 mg per day and of which the total amount in our body is at least 5 g

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trace minerals

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minerals we need to consume in amounts less than 100 mg per day and of which the total amount in our body is less than 5 g

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Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

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a set of nutritional reference values for the United States and Canada that applies to healthy people

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Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)

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the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half the healthy individuals in a particular life stage or gender group

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Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)

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the average daily nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient requirements of 97-98% of healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group

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Adequate Intake (AI)

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a recommended average daily nutrient intake level based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people

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Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)

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the highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in a particular life stage and gender group

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Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)

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the average dietary energy intake that is predicted to maintain energy balance in a healthy adult

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Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)

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the range of macronutrient intakes that provides adequate levels of essential nutrients and is associated with a reduced risk for chronic disease

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hypothesis

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an educated guess as to why a phenomenon occurs

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theory

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a conclusion drawn from repeated experiements

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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the leading federal agency in the United States that protects the health and safety of people; its mission is to promote health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability

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24-hour recall

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a data collection tool that assesses everything a person has consumed over the past 24 hours

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National Institutes of Health (NIH)

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the world's leading medical research center and the focal point for medical research in the United States

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alcohol

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chemically, a compound characterized by the presence of a hydroxl group; in common usage, a beverage made from fermented fruits, vegetables, or grains and containing ethanol

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ethanol

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a specific alcohol compound (C2H5OH) formed from the fermentation of dietary carbohydrates and used in a variety of alcoholic beverages

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drink

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the amount of an alcoholic beverage that provides approximately 0.5 fluid oz of pure ethanol

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proof

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a measure of the alcohol content of a liquid; 100 proof liquor is 50% alcohol by volume, 80 proof liquor is 40% alcohol by volume, and so on

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resveratrol

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a potent phenolic antioxidant found in red wine as well as grapes and nuts

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alcohol abuse

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the excessive consumption of alcohol, whether chronically or occasionally

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binge drinking

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the consumption of five or more alcoholic drinks on one occasion for me, or four or more for women

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alcoholism

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a disease state characterized by chronic dependence on alcohol

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alcohol hangover

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a consequence of drinking too much alcohol; symptoms include headache, fatigue, dizziness, muscle aches, nausea and vomiting, sensitivity to light and sound, extreme thirst, and mood disturbances

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alcohol poisoning

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a potentially fatal condition in which an overdose of alcohol results in cardiac and/or respiratory failure

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fatty liver

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an early and reversible stage of liver disease often found in people who abuse alcohol and characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fat within liver cells; also called alcoholic steatosis

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alcoholic hepatitis

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inflammation of the liver caused by alcohol; other forms of hepatitis can be caused by a virus or toxin

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cirrhosis of the liver

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endstage liver disease characterized by significant abnormalities in liver structure and function; may lead to complete liver failure

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teratogen

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a compound known to cause fetal harm or danger

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healthful diet

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a diet that provides the proper combination of energy and nutrients and is adequate, moderate, balanced, and varied

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adequate diet

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a diet that provides enough of the energy, nutrients, and fiber needed to maintain a person's health

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moderation

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eating any foods in moderate amounts - not too much and not too little

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balanced diet

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a diet that contains the combinations of foods that provide the proper proportions of nutrients

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variety

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eating a lot of different foods each day

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Nutrition Facts Panel

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the label on a food package that contains the nutrition information required by the FDA

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percent Daily Values (%DV)

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information on a Nutrition Facts Panel that identifies how much a serving of food contributes to your overall intake of the nutrients listed on the label; based on an energy intake of 2,000 Calories per day

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functional food

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a food or food component that provides a health benefit beyond basic nutrition

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Dietary Guidelines for Americans

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a set of principles developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to assist Americans in designing a healthful diet and lifestyle; these guidelines are updated every 5 years

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nutrient-dense foods

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foods that provide the most nutrients for the least amount of energy (Calories)

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nutrient density

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the relative amount of nutrients per amount of energy (or number of Calories)

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MyPyramid

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the graphic representation of the USDA Food Guide

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discretionary Calories

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a term used in the USDA Food Guide that represents the extra amount of energy you can consume after you have met all of your essential needs by consuming the most nutrient-dense foods that are low-fat or fat-free and that have no added sugars

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ounce-equivalent (oz-equivalent)

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a serving size that is 1 ounce, or equivalent to an ounce, for the grains section and the meats and beans section of the USDA Food Guide

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phytochemicals

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compounds found in plants that are believed to have health-promoting effects in humans

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diseases of aging

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conditions that typically occur later in life as a result of lifelong accumulated risk, such as exposure to high-fat diets, a lack of physical activity, and excess sun exposure

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metabolites

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the form that nutrients take when they have been used by the body; for example, lactate is a metabolite of carbohydrate that is produced when we use carbohydrate for energy

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hunger

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a physiologic sensation that prompts us to eat

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appetite

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a psychological desire to consume specific foods

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anorexia

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an absence of appetite

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hypothalamus

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a region of forebrain above the pituitary gland, where visceral sensations, such as hunger and thirst, are regulated

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hormone

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a chemical messenger secreted into the bloodstream by one of the many glands of the body, which acts as a regulator of physiologic processes at a site remote from the gland that secreted it

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cell

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the smallest unit of matter that exhibits the properties of living things, such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism

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cell membrane

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the boundary of an animal cell that separates its internal cytoplasm and organelles from the external environment

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cytoplasm

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the interior of an animal cell, not including its nucleus

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organelle

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a tiny "organ" within a cell that performs a discrete function necessary to the cell

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tissue

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a grouping of like cells that performs a function; for example, muscle tissue

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organ

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a body structure composed of two or more tissues and performing a specific function; for example, the esophagus

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system

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a group of organs that work together to perform a unique function; for example, the gastrointestinal system

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digestion

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the process by which foods are broken down into their component molecules, either mechanically or chemically

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absorption

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the physiologic process by which molecules of food are taken from the gastrointestinal tract into the circulation

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elimination

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the process by which undigested portions of food and waste products are removed from the body

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gastrointestinal (GI) tract

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a long, muscular tube consisting of several organs: the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

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sphincter

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a tight ring of muscle separating some of the organs of the GI tract and opening in response to nerve signals indicating that food is ready to pass into the next section

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cephalic phase

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the earliest phase of digestion, in which the brain thinks about and prepares the digestive organs for the consumption of food

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saliva

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a mixture of water, mucus, enzymes, and other chemicals that moistens the mouth and food, binds food particles together, and begins the digestion of carbohydrates

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salivary glands

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a group of glands found under and behind the tongue and beneath the jaw that release saliva continually as well as in response to the thought, sight, smell, or presence of food

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enzymes

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small chemicals, usually proteins, that act on other chemicals to speed up the body processes but are not apparently changed during those processes

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bolus

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a mass of food that has been chewed and moistened in the mouth

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esophagus

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a muscular tube of the GI tract connecting the back of the mouth to the stomach

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peristalsis

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waves of squeezing and pushing contractions that move food in one direction through the length of the GI tract

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stomach

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a J-shaped organ where food is partially digested, churned, and stored until it is released into the small intestine

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gastric juice

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acidic liquid secreted within the stomach; it contains hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and other compounds

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denature

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the action of the unfolding of proteins in the stomach; proteins must be denatured before they can be digested

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chyme

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a semifluid mass consisting of partially digested food, water, and gastric juices

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small intestine

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the longest portion of the GI tract, where most digestion and absorption takes place

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gallbladder

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a tissue sac beneath the liver that stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine

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bile

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fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; it emulsifies fats in the small intestine

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pancreas

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a gland located behind the stomach that secretes digestive enzymes

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lacteal

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a small lymph vessel located inside the villi of the small intestine

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brush border

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the microvilli-covered lining cells of the small intestine's villi; these microvilli tremendously increase the small intestine's absorptive capacity

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liver

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the largest auxiliary organ of the GI tract and one of the most important organs of the body; its functions include the production of bile and processing of nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine

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large intestine

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the final organ of the GI tract, consisting of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal and in which most water is absorbed and feces are formed

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enteric nervous system

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the nerves of the GI tract

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heartburn (gastroesophageal reflux [GER])

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a painful sensation that occurs over the sternum when hydrochloric acid backs up into the lower esophagus

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gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

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a more painful type of GER that occurs more than twice per week

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peptic ulcer

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an area of the GI tract that has been eroded away by the acidic gastric juice of the stomach

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diarrhea

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a condition characterized by the frequent passage of loose, watery stools

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constipation

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a condition characterized by the absence of bowel movements for a period of time that is significantly longer than normal for the individual; when a bowel movement does occur, stools are usually small, hard, and difficult to pass

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irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

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a bowel disorder that interferes with normal functions of the colon

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food intolerance

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gastrointestinal discomfort caused by certain foods that is not a result of an immune system reaction

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lactose intolerance

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a disorder in which the body does not produce enough lactase enzyme to break down the sugar lactose, which is found in milk and milk products

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food allergy

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an inflammatory reaction to food caused by an immune system hypersensitivity

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celiac disease

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an autoimmune disorder characterized by an inability to absorb a component of gluten called gliadin; this causes an inflammatory immune response that damages the lining of the small intestine

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carbohydrate

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one of the three macronutrients, a compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that is derived from plants and provides energy

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glucose

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the most abundant sugar molecule, a monosaccharide generally found in combination with other sugars; it is the preferred source of energy for the brain and an important source of energy for all cells

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photosynthesis

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the process by which plants use sunlight to fuel a chemical reaction that combines carbon and water into glucose, which is then stored in their cells

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simple carbohydrate

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commonly called sugar; can be either a monosaccharide (such as glucose) or a disaccharide

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monosaccharide

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the simplest of carbohydrates, consisting of one sugar molecule, the most common form of which is glucose

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disaccharide

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a carbohydrate compound consisting of two sugar molecules joined together

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fructose

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the sweetest natural sugar; a monosaccharide that occurs in fruits and vegetables; also called levulose, or fruit sugar

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galactose

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a monosaccharide that joins with glucose to create lactose, one of the three most common disaccharides

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ribose

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a five-carbon monosaccharide that is located in the generic material of cells

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lactose

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a disaccharide consisting of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule; it is found in milk, including human breast milk; also called milk sugar

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maltose

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a disaccharide consisting of two molecules of glucose; it does not generally occur independently in foods but results as a by-product of digestion; maltose is also called malt sugar

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fermentation

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a process in which an agent causes an organic substance to break down into simpler substances and results in the production of ATP

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sucrose

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a disaccharide composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule; sucrose is sweeter than lactose or maltose

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complex carbohydrate

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a nutrient compound consisting of long chains of glucose molecules, such as starch, glycogen, and fiber

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polysaccharide

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a complex carbohydrate consisting of long chains of glucose

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starch

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a polysaccharide stored in plants; the storage form of glucose in plants

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glycogen

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a polysaccharide; the storage form of glucose in animals

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dietary fiber

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the non-digestible carbohydrate parts of plants that form the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds

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functional fiber

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the non-digestible forms of carbohydrates that are extracted from plants or manufactured in a laboratory and have known health benefits

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total fiber

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the sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber

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soluble fibers

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fibers that dissolve in water

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viscous

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having a gel-like consistency; viscous fibers form a gel when dissolved in water

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insoluble fibers

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fibers that do not dissolve in water

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ketosis

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the process by which the breakdown of fat during fasting states results in the production of ketones

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ketones

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substances produced during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate intake is sufficient to meet energy needs; ketones provide an alternative energy source for the brain when glucose levels are low

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ketoacidosis

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a condition in which excessive ketones are present in the blood, causing the blood to become very acidic, which alters basic body functions and damages tissues; untreated ketoacidosis can be fatal; this is a condition found in individuals with untreated diabetes mellitus

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gluconeogenesis

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the generation of glucose from the breakdown of proteins into amino acids

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salivary amylase

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an enzyme in saliva that breaks starch into smaller particles and eventually into the disaccharide maltose

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pancreatic amylase

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an enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine that digests any remaining starch into maltose

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maltase

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a digestive enzyme that breaks maltose into glucose

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sucrase

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a digestive enzyme that breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose

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lactase

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a digestive enzyme that breaks lactose into glucose and galactose

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insulin

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the hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to increased blood levels of glucose; it facilitates the uptake of glucose by body cells

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glucagon

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the hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to decreased blood levels of glucose; it causes the breakdown of liver stores of glycogen into glucose

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hypoglycemia

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a condition marked by blood glucose levels that are below normal fasting levels

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glycemic index

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the system that assigns ratings (or values) for the potential of foods to raise blood glucose and insulin levels

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glycemic load

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the amount of carbohydrate in a food multiplied by the glycemic index of the carbohydrate

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added sugars

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sugars and syrups that are added to food during processing or preparation

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enriched foods

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foods in which nutrients that were lost during processing have been added back, so that the food meets a specified standard

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fortified foods

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foods in which nutrients are added that did not originally exist in the food, or which existed in insignificant amounts

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nutritive sweeteners

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sweeteners, such as sucrose, fructose, honey, and brown sugar, that contribute Calories (energy)

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non-nutritive sweeteners

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manufactured sweeteners that provide little or no energy; also called alternative sweeteners

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Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)

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an FDA estimate of the amount of a non-nutritive sweetener that someone can consume each day over a lifetime without adverse effects

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diabetes

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a chronic disease in which the body can no longer regulate glucose normally

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type 1 diabetes

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a disorder in which the body cannot produce enough insulin

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type 2 diabetes

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a progressive disorder in which body cells become less responsive to insulin

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impaired fasting glucose

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fasting blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not high enough to lead to a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes; also called pre-diabetes