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175 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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50% of the phosphorus (P) in mature seeds is int he form of ______
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phytin
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Non-ruminants lack the enzyme ______ so a lot of phosphorus is not available to them.
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phytase
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What is the Webster's dictionary definition of nutrition?
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the sum of processes by which an animal or plant takes in and utilizes food substances
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Is lignin digestable?
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no
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What is food/feed?
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Material which, after ingestion by animals, is capable of being digested, absorbed, and utilized
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Is energy a nutrient?
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No, it is a property of a nutrient. But carbs are a nutrient.
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What is a diet?
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a mixture of feedstuffs supplying nutrients to an animal
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What are nutrients?
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-Components of food.feed capable of being utilized by animals
-A chemical element or compound that is required in the diet of a given animal to permit normal functioning of the life processes |
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What is foodstuff/feedstuff?
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-Material used as food/feed
-For farm animals, this is mainly plant based material -Non-nutritive products such as feed flavors may be added |
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What are feed flavors?
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Feed odors used to keep the smell consistent
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Feedstuffs such as BHT (and _______), and Vitamin _______ are often used in rations
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antioxidant, A acetate
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What is a ration?
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Same as a diet, and may be used when referring to the daily supply of food/feed
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What is digestion?
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the preparation of food for absorption; reduction of complex dietary materials into forms suitable for absorption
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What does digestion include?
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1) Mechanical forces such as mastication and muscular contractions of the GI tract (mixes food)
2) Chemical action such as bile and acid 3) enzymatic action from GIT secretion as well as from microorganisms |
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What is absorption?
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Involves various proceses that allow small molecules to pass through the membranes of the GIT into the blood or lymph systems for distribution throughout the body
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As you go up the food chain, what happens to energy?
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Energy is lost as you go up the system
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What is BMR?
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Basal metabolic rate: the amount of energy (base) to keep you alive
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What is the source of all energy on earth?
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the sun
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Energy from plant compounds is utilized for:
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1) maintaining bodily functions (respirations, blood flow, nervous system, etc)
2) tissue gain in growth, 3) formation of animal products |
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Once a given species reaches and becomes established in a certain area, the number of organisms (or their total mass) is determined by:
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the rate of flow or energy through the biological part of the ecosystem which includes them
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What is the nutrient chain?
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C, N, and other elements are reused CYCLICALLY, energy is not and can be used only once by a given organism (energy flow)
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In a food chain, energy is ultimately degraded to:
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head and lost to the ecosystem
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Is the transformation of energy of 100% energy?
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NO
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Where is the largest loss of energy?
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In feces
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What is the heat loss in digestion?
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Head associated with head of digestions, heat of fermentation, heat of waste product formation, and heat of nutrient metabolism
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What is TDN?
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Total digestible nutrients
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What is the actual energy retained by the animal?
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Net energy
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What are roughages?
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Primary food source for herbivores in nature
Include pasture and range, harveted and stored roughages, and crop residues |
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Roughages are characteristically:
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-Bulky in nature
-low weight per unit (of buying) -High in cell wall content -cellulose & lignin |
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What is NDF?
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Neutral (pH) detergent fiber: Includes hemicellulose and cellulose
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What does lignin do?
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Gives the plant structure
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What is ADF?
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Acid Detergent Fiber: measures cellulose and lignin, NOT hemicellulose
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What is the error in NDF?
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There is no pectin. Pectin is in cell contents which should be highly digestible
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Compared to concentrates, roughages are higher in ______ and lower in _______
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fiber, energy
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Which has higher digestibility: roughages or concentrates?
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concentrates
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Minerals including ___, ___ and many trace minerals are higher in roughages than concentrates.
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Ca, K
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Generally there is a higher amount of fat soluble vitamins in _______ than _______
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roughages, concentrates
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Concentrates are high in energy content: What are TDN and NFE?
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TDN: total digestible nutrient
NFE: nitrogen free extract |
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Where is the energy supplied from in concentrates?
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Readily available carbs (sugars and starch) or by fat/oil
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Why are concentrates added to the ration?
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to increase energy intake or to increase the energy density of the ration
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What do concentrates include?
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cereal grains, and some of their milling byproducts, molasses, and fats/oils
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What are some examples of cereals?
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Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice, triticale (wheat-rye cross). These are annual crops
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What are grains?
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Seeds from cereal plants; members of the grass family, Graminae
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What will affect the nutrient composition of cereals?
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Soil fertility, fertilization, plant variety, weather, and rainfall
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Are most cereals processed before feeding?
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Yes
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What are some wheat byproducts?
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(Decreasing fiber content). Bran, middlings (mill run), shorts, red dog, and feed flour
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Milling wheat yields byproducts accounting for approximately ___% of the kernel
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25%
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In wheat, protein content may be higherl outer seed layers are good sources of the water soluble vitamins; products are low in ___ and high in ___ and ___
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Ca, P, Mg
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Milling corn for corn meal results in _____ which consists of:
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Hominy: corn bran, corn germ, and part of endosperm and is higher in protein, lipid, and fiber
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Wet milling of corn results in the production of:
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corn gluten meal and corn gluten feed
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What are individual grain kernels called?
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caryopses
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Grains with husks (oats, barley and rice) are called...
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covered caryopses
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Grains that lack husks (corn, wheat, rye, sorghum) are called:
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naked caryopses
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Exclusive of the husk, grains are composed of the ______ and the ____
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pericarp (fruit coat) and the seed
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The seed consists of:
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1) seed coat (testa) and hayline layer (nuclellar layer)
2) endosperm 3) germ (embryo) |
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For cereals, the milling process involves the separation of:
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husk, bran, endosperm, and germ
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What is the endosperm?
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consists of the aleurone and starchy endosperm
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What is aleurone?
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surrounds the starchy endosperm; rich in oil, niacin, and mineral content; phytic acid found here
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What is in the starchy endosperm?
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starch and protein
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What is in the germ?
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consists of essentially an undeveloped plant surrounded by stored nutrients
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What are the % dry weights of:
Endosperm, bran, and germ |
E: 83%
B: 14% G: 3% |
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White flour is basically all:
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endosperm
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Folic acid or _______ was required to be added (by FDA) to flour, but it is not an enrichment it is a ________
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B vitamin, fortification
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Folic acid helps prevent what?
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neural tube defects
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Fat is added to rations as:
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a source of energy and to reduce dustiness and improve palatability (adds texture)
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Protein percentage in concentrates is usually around ____%
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>20% CP
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Protein concentrate source include:
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animal, vegetable, and synthetic nonprotein N (urea)
They are usually expensive |
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What are the percentages for urea?
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45% Nitrogen
231% CP equivalent |
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Can ruminants use urea?
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Yes the microbes can turn urea into protein
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What are some animal origin protein sources?
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~Inedible tissues from meat packing and rendering plant, milk byproducts, and marine sources
~Meat and bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, and feather meal ~Dried skim milk and dried whole milk ~Fish meal |
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Can meat and bone meal be fed back to livestock?
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No, it goes to petfood industry
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How do they make feather meal more digestible?
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They use steam and pressure
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Can dried milks and blood meal be fed to livestock?
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Yes
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What are the main plant based concentrates in CA?
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soybean and canola meals, but it used to be cottonseed meal (polyunsaturated fatty acids)
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What are some other plant origin concentrates?
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cottonseed, linseed meal, peanut meal, safflower meal, sunflower meal, and cottonseed meal
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Where do distillers and brewers grains come from?
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hard spirits (distillers is a big feed source)
and beer industry |
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What are the two mathematical modelling things?
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Empirical (no cause and effect)
EX. y=a+bx+cx^2+dx^3 Mechanistic (cause and effect) EX. PV=nRT |
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What is the goal in diet formulation?
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To formulate the most economical diet that meets specific requirements for maintenance, growth, and lactation
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What is linear programming (LP)?
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A method for allocating scarce resources among competing activities optimally.
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What are the four basic assumptions that must be met in an LP problem?
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1) Linearity a (assume x and y are feeds you are purchasing)
a. Proportionality: Can use 2x or 4c, not x^2 b. Additivity: Can use x+y not x^y or xy 2) Non-negativity: The values of each variable X must be greater than or equal to 0 3) Certainty: All values are known with certainty. That is they are all determanistic. 4) Continuous: The calues can take any non-negative number |
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What 2 components does the LP programming model consist of?
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1) The objective function: cost of feed
2) A set of linear constraints which limit the amount of a nutrient requirement in the diet or which ensure a particular requirement is met. |
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For the Proximate or Weende System of Analysis, what are the 6 fractions that the feedstuffs are partitioned into?
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a) Moisture, Crude protein (CP), Crude fiber (CF), Ether extract (EE), and ash -chemical determinations
b) Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) - calculated by difference 100-(Moisture +CP+ CF+ EE+ ash) |
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine moisture?
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dry to constant weight 100-100 degrees C
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine ash?
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oxidize at 500-600 degrees C (muffle furnace)
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine crude protein?
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nitrogen by ammonia
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine crude fat?
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either extraction
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine crude fiber?
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residue after boiling with dilute acid & base
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For proximate analysis fractions,what is the method to determine NFE?
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the remainder of stuff!
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100% - % moisture =
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% Dry Matter (DM)
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What is the error in calculating moisture in proximate analysis?
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volatiles are lost, e.g. VFAs and materials that decompose at high temp --> decreases % error
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What is ash?
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total mineral content
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What is the error in calculating ash in proximate analysis?
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may contain mineral matter melting and fusing which protects some unoxidized material
or may contain material of organic origin such as sulfur and phosphorus some loss of volatile minerals such as sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphorus, and sulfur |
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What does the Kjeldahl method do?
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measures crude protein
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What does the Kjeldahl method measure?
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The amount of reduced nitrogen (N) present (-NH2 and =NH)
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What are the two steps of the Kjeldahl method?
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1) Involves wet oxidation of sample with sulfuric acid in which all N (except nitrate and nitrite forms) is converted to ammonium sulfate
2) Ammonia is liberated by adding sodium hydroxide and distillation of ammonia into acid. The quantity collected is determined by titration |
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%CP =
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(total %N * 6.25
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What is the error in calculating crude protein in proximate analysis?
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Measures N in the form of: protein bu also urea, amino acids & other N sources
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Crude fat contains:
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True fat, it also contains either soluble, non-triglycerides compounds such as chlorophyll, waxes, volatile oils, resins, and pigments, which have little value to the animal
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What is the reality of trying to analyze the crude fiber of feeds?
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may recover only 10-15% of the lignin, 15-25% of the hemicellulose, and 50-80% of the cellulose
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What is NFE?
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100%- (water + ash + CP + CF + EE)
Considered to be the readily digestible carbohydrate portion (sugars and starchs) may contain amounts of highly indigestible components of the feed |
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What is the main problem with determining NFE?
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All errors of the other determinations are reflected in this fraction
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What is neutral detergent fiber? *
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Total cell wall content--> cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and more
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How do you determine NDF in detergent extraction method?
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samples are boiled (refluxed) in a neutral solution of sodium lauryl sulphate and EDTA to extract lipids, sugars, organic acids, pectin, nonprotein nitrogen compounds, soluble protein, and some silica and tannin
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What is the error in calculating NDF?
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soluble material is referred to as the cell contents and is highly digestible by all species. The exception is pectin
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How do you determine ADF?
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~Samples are boiled (refluxed) in a solution (acid detergent solution) containing sulfuric acid and c-something bromide
~the residue that remains consists mainly of cellulose and lignin (plus some silica, cutin, lignified N, and pectins) |
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What are the cell fractions for cell contents (in soluble neutral detergent)?
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lipids
sugars, organic acids, and water soluble matter pectin, starch soluble protein non-protein N |
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What are the cell fractions of the cell wall constituents (insoluble in neutral detergent)?
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1) soluble in acid detergent: hemicellulose, fiber bound protein
2) acid detergent fiber: cellulose, lignin, lignified N, silica |
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What is in vitro rumen digestibility?
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~referred to as the two-stage in vitro method or Tilley and Terry method
Attempts to simulate the digestion processes occurring in the ruminant animal |
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How do you do in vitro rumen digestibility?
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1) a ground sample is incubated for 48 hours with buffered rumen liquid under anaerobic conditions to simulate rumen fermentation
2) the bacteria are killed by acidifying with HCL and digested with pepsin for 48 hours to simulate the lower GIT 3) the residue remaining is filtered, dried and weighed |
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What is the in situ (ot in sacco) rumen digestibility?
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Refers to the method of using "nylon" bags with a weighed amount of sample feedstuffs suspended in the rumen of a rumen fistulated animal
Obtain estimates of extent of digestion and rate of digestion ~measured for DM, NDF, N, starch etc |
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What does oxygen bomb calorimeter measure?
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The energy values of solids, liquids and gasses.
Materials burned, energy turned into heat and raises temp |
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How much is one cal?
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The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1 C, measured from 14.5 to 15.5 C
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1 Kcal is equivalent to
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4.1855 joules
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The quantity of heat produced from the complete oxidation of a food stuff is called _______
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gross energy
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Digestibility coefficient % =
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((nutrient intake - nutrient in feces)/nutrient intake) x 100%
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The proportion of food which is not excreted in the feces, is assumed to be:
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absorbed by the animal
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Determining digestibility of mammals vs avian (poultry)
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In birds, feces and urine are voided from a single orifice, the cloaca. But can be separated chemically since most urine N is in the form of uric acid and most fecal N is present as true protein
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It is easier to separate feces and urine from _____ compared to _____
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males, females
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What is the equation for total collection (apparent digestibility)?
% digestibility = |
% digestibility = ((amount consumed - amount in feces) / amount consumed) x 100
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What are some indicators used in the indicator method?
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Cr2O3
lignin AIA (acid insoluble ash) They are indigestible and 100% recovery |
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Apparent digestibility is based on _______
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total output
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Apparent digestibility involves:
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excretion of substances in the feces not arising directly from the food, underestimating the proportion of food absorbed.
the loss of methane arising from fermentation of CHO which is considered as digested, overestimation of digestible CHO |
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Feces may contain nutrients from sources other than the feed consumed, for example:
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1) enzymes secreted in digestive tract
2) nutrients of bacterial origin 3) nutrients (primarily N) from abraded intestinal mucosa 4) some mineral excretion into the digestive tract |
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For true digestibility, ____% N should be digested
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92%
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For apparent digestibility _____% N should be digested
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75-78%
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Which is larger, true or apparent digestibility?
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true
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What is the thing we worry about most when measuring digestibility?
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fiber, because it is the most variable
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What is TDN?
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Total digestible nutrients: (measured in %) once digestion coefficients (apparent) for components (CF, CP, EE, and NFE) are determined, TDN can be calculated
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What is the equation for TDN?
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TDN = DCP + DNFE + DCF + 2.25(DEE)
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Why will tannins reduce digestibility?
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They can bind dietary proteins, or bind enzymes in the GI tracts that will reduce diet protein digestion
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Some animals have evolved with tannin binding proteins in their saliva, they are called ______
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proline-rich proteins.
These animals are humans, rats, bears, moose and mule deer |
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How are tannins used for agricultural purposes?
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High tannin sorghum grains (milo) are used because they reduce the incidence of birds eating the seeds. Fed to cattle
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The major purpose of the digestive system is to provide for:
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the assimilation of nutrients of nutrients required for biological functions including maintenance, growth, lactation, gestation, work reproduction etc
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Gastrointestinal (GI) tract functions include:
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1) ingestion - receipt & softening of food
2) transport of ingested food 3) secretion of digestive enzymes, acid, mucus & bile 4) absorption of end products of digestion 5) movement of undigested |
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What are the physical processed of digestion?
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Chewing and movements along the GI tract that break food into smaller pieces and mix them with digestive secretions and also separate food out
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What are the chemical processes or digestion?
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Includes breaking bonds in nutrients by enzymes or microbes
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What is maceration?`
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Start to soften and separate food into different parts
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Secretions in the digestive tract include:
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-mucus for lubrication & protection
-enzymes to hydrolyze nutrients -fluids to maintain the pH environment |
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What is probably one of the most accessible routed for substances from the environment to enter the body?
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The digestive tract
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What are some defense mechanisms that animals have developed to help bad things from entering their body?
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-selection of food (acceptability or palatability)
-expulsion of irritants by vomiting (emesis) or diarrhea (increased rate of passage) -degradation or complexing of substances to prevent their absorption -selective permeability of the intestinal epithelium |
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What does salivary amylase do?
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Helps to break down starch to maltose.
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What are distinguishing features of digestive physiology?
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1) location (ex. site of fermentation)
2) size and shape 3) capacity of the parts |
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What happens to starch in ruminants?
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Is turned into glucose which is turned into volatile fatty acids
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What are the volatile fatty acids?
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acetic acid
proprionic acid buteric acid |
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What are the parts of the digestive system of a non-ruminant?
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Mouth
Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large Intestine Anus |
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In non-ruminants what is the cecum?
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the end of the SI and beginning of the LI
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In non-ruminants how long is the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum?
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1 ft, 4ft, 5ft
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In non-ruminants what is the small intestine?
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-a tube connecting the stomach to the cecum/large intestine
-consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum |
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In non-ruminants, what is the large intestine?
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-extends from the ileum to the anus
-consists of cecum, colon, and rectum in humans -final storage of digesta -absorption of water and inorganic ions -site of microbial fermentation |
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In non-ruminants, what are the digestive agents?
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In stomach: acid (HCL), proteolytic enzymes (pepsin/lipase), and mucus
-reservoir function |
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In non-ruminants, what are the minerals that are absorbed in the large intestine?
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Na, Cl, K, Mg, P
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In avians, what is the anatomy of the digestive tract?
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Mouth
Crop Proventriculus Gizzard Small intestine Large intestine Cloaca |
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What is the mouth in avians?
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Tongue
Lips replaced by beak Teeth are absent Salivary glands usually present |
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What is the crop in avians?
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-diverticulum of the esophagus
- food is stored and soaked here before entering the gizzard for most birds -some fermentation might occur here (Hoatzin bird) -storage function is similar to the storage function of the conventional vertebrate stomach |
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What is the specialized function of the crop?
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Crop content regurgitated to feed babies
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Do all birds have a crop?
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No, owls and hawks do not
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What is the proventriculus in avians?
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(thin-walled glandular stomach) -gastric stomach
-digestive juices (HCL, pepsin, lipase) -food does not accumulate here are in the stomach of mammals but gastric secretions are present 2 compartments, 2 chambers |
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How does size vary in the proventriculus?
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Predacious carnivores have highly distendable (expandable) ones
Granivores (seed eaters) do not have highly expandable ones |
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What is the gizzard in avians?
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(ventriculus) muscular organ containing stones and grit that aid in grinding hard seeds and grains before they move to the SI.
-lined with koilen, a horny material composed of protein and carbohydrate -can live without the gizzard if food is ground -involved in trituration, maceration, and contractions that move digesta into the intestine |
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What are some specialized functions of the gizzard?
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castings --> forming pellets. regurgitatable in carnivores
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How does the pH in the small intestine of a bird compare to that of non-ruminants?
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More acidic
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Describe the large intestine in avians?
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ceca or cecum
colon is very short ceca usually paired throughout although the heron have only one, and the hummingbirds, swifts, parrot, budgerigar and some pigeons and wood peckers have none (light for flight) |
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What enzyme is missing the the digestive tract of avians?
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lactase
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For ruminants, what is the digestive tract anatomy consisted of?
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mouth
esophagus one stomach with 4 compartments |
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Describe the mouth of a ruminant
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a) no upper incisor teeth
b) upper dental pad |
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Why is the esophagus important in ruminants?
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for during rumination when boluses are regurgitated for remastication
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What are the 4 compartments of the ruminant stomach?
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reticulum, rumen, omasum, abomasum
*size of compartments change with age |
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In young ruminants, which parts are underdeveloped?
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reticulum, rumen, and omasum
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What is the biggest part of the stomach in a new born ruminant?
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abomasum
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What is the reticular groove?
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milk passes from the esophagus to the omasum to prevent microbial fermentation of milk
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For ruminants, what are the digestive agents in:
1) reticulo-rumen 2) abomasum |
1) microbial fermentation, non secretory
2) gastric secretion (HCL) |
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What is the anatomy like in a non-ruminant herbivore?
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same parts as normal non-ruminant.
fermentation in posterior GIT: cecum and colon |
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What is the shape of a horse stomach?
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J
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Describe the large intestine in a horse
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colon volume is much larger than cecum
site of microbial fermentation |
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What is the error in measuring crude protein?
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Measures N in the form of: protein but also urea, amino acids and other N sources
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