Notes In Peercy's Class

Front 1

8 Parts of Speech fit into 5 functions of a natural language. The 5 functions are:

Back 1

naming (nouns, pronouns), action (verbs), modification (adjectives, adverbs), joining (prepositions, conjunctions), exclaiming (interjections)

Front 2

Semantic

Back 2

Delivers meaning of a sentence. The Semantic groups are open classes, meaning that new members can be and are added all the time. Semantic information answers questions about the content of the sentence.
Nouns – Who, Whom, What.
Verbs – Action [do-verbs, modals, action verbs, intransitive verbs, be verbs etc.]
Adjectives – Modification
Adverbs – Modification

Front 3

Functional:

Back 3

Delivers grammatical information. These are closed classes, we haven’t added a new pronoun in 1500 years. Functional information is structural and informs us of who did what to whom.

Front 4

________Don’t actually mean anything, but are there to prove some sort of action or existence.

Back 4

Be Verbs

Front 5

infinite stem. (of Be Verbs)

Back 5

Be, Being, Been

Front 6

Past Tense Be Verbs

Back 6

was, were

Front 7

Present tense Be Verbs

Back 7

Am, are, is

Front 8

Verbs of the senses and, I suppose, change.
See, Smell, Hear, Taste, Touch, became/become, remain etc.

Back 8

Linking Verbs

Front 9

__________ verbs Do not act upon an object. “I cried, despairing of ever getting around to studying for psych.” I can cry on something, but I can’t cry something, it just doesn’t work.
“I kicked,” however, requires a noun/object. “I kicked uselessly at nothing.” Is still “I kicked nothing.”

Back 9

Intransitive

Front 10

________verbs: are the opposite of intransitive verbs. They require an object upon which to act. “I kicked the ground when I was aiming for the football.” No, true story. Kicking the ground broke my ankle.

Back 10

Transitive Verbs

Front 11

4 traditional grammatical sentence types.

Back 11

Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound/Complex

Front 12

Simple

Back 12

A single independent clause/sentence pattern.
“George likes pretty girls.”

Front 13

Compound

Back 13

2 or more independent clauses/sentence patterns.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her.”

Front 14

Complex

Back 14

1 independent clause & 1 or more dependent clauses.
“George likes Sally and Bernadette, who is less attractive.”

Front 15

Compound/Complex

Back 15

2 or more independent clauses & At LEAST 1 dependent clause.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her and is going to propose marriage.”

Front 16

Inflectional Morpheme Chart

Back 16

Front 17

Explain Assimilation and Dissimilation (in the Productive/Number-charachteristic of a noun)

Back 17

Dissimilation: Because there would be no distinction between sounds if you added an S or Z to a sibilant word, the vowel sound makes
Dissimilation: S---es
Assimilation: The unvoiced sound is met the plural distinct. Assimilation: S--s S---z

Front 18

---------Is the SUBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun nominative, it just is. (noun/case/_____)

Back 18

Nominative (noun/case/nominative)

The 'man' thanked the woman. subject
The 'woman' thanked the man. subject

Front 19

– Is the OBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun accusative, so position in the sentence becomes vital. (noun/case/_____)

Back 19

Accusative (noun/case/accusative)

The man thanked the 'woman'. object
The woman thanked the 'man'. object

Front 20

_____'s Formal marker is to add S. this is the possessive case, but we call it “_______” because _______ has more range than “possessive” it covers authorship, ownership, and origination as well as possession. Ex. “Joyce’s Ulysses” and “Jess’s copy of Ulysses” don’t mean the same thing, even if the object is the same. This is the same for pronouns as well – His. Hers, theirs, end in S.

Back 20

Genitive (noun/case/genitive) S Possesive

Front 21

______ is a construct which is implicationally related to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical link.
__________ can, positionally, be anywhere in a sentence, front, middle, or end.

Back 21

Absolute (noun/case/absolute)

Front 22

The 3 types of Absolutes and their explanations:

Back 22

Mere Exclamation, Direct Address (vocative), Nominative Absolute, Position

Front 23

Question Category Reference Adverbs are:

Back 23

where, when, why, how, to what extent, under what circumstances

Front 24

Question Categories/ Reference Adjectives

Back 24

Which, What kind, How many, Whose

Front 25

The three question categories are:

Back 25

Reference nouns, reference adverbs, reference adjectives

Front 26

Pronominalization Rule

Back 26

The first occurrence of a nominal is a full reference, the second and subsequent occurrences may/will be pronominalized until another reference occurs.

Front 27

If the demonstrative pronoun is followed by a Verb, it is referencing__________

Back 27

a subject that is in a previous context. “This is fun.” The meaning of “this” is in a previous context.
“We went for a long run in the park today. That was awesome.”

Front 28

That. The word “That” has 5 possible functions, it can be

Back 28

1. Complementizer
2. Relative Pronoun
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
4. Subordinate conjunction 1
5. Subordinate conjunction 2

Front 29

3 Major Recursive Devices:

Back 29

Conjunction [both coordinate and subordinate]
Complementation
Relativization [relative clauses]

Front 30

Imbedding means:

Back 30

making a sentence bigger. A clause within a clause [which occurs w/recursiveness, hence the notation].

Front 31

If a clause occurs INSIDE another sentence, it HAS to be_____

Back 31

integrated/Subordinate. A subordinate clause begins with a subordinate conjunction [because, therefore, etc.] rendering it an adjective clause. If it DOES NOT contain a subordinate conjunction, the clause is an adverb.

Front 32

_______acts as a subject or a complement [Object/complement]

Back 32

a nounphrase

Front 33

Complement:

Back 33

a) a word or group of words that completes a grammatical construction in the predicate and that describes or is identified with the subject or object, as “small” in “The house is small” or “president” in “They elected her president.”
b) any word or group of words used to complete a grammatical construction, esp. in the predicate, including adverbials, as “on the table” in “He put it on the table,” infinitives, as “To go” in “They are ready to go” and sometimes objects, as “ball” in “He caught the ball.”
Therefore – a pronoun works the same way 
Where ever there is a Noun Phrase, there can be a relative clause. It’s just true. NP(S)

Front 34

Vacuous move means:

Back 34

the meaning of the sentence doesn’t change.
The warrant identified the woman. - [the woman] whom the warrant identified.

Front 35

Type 1 Relative Reduction

Back 35

If the relative pronoun is not the subject of a relative clause, it can be deleted.

If we delete the relative pronoun that is NOT the subject of the clause, the identity is still there, and the syntactic function is empty.

“A problem everyone who has driven and automobile has been called upon to solve may be used as an example of alternative and hypothetical reasoning in simple causes.”

“Everyone WHO has driven an automobile” – in this instance, WHO is the subject of the relative clause and so it cannot be deleted.

“A problem THAT everyone has been called upon to solve” – in this instance, THAT is NOT the subject [everyone is the subject] of the relative clause, and as we see above it has/can be deleted. “That” may be deleted or restored at will because it is not the subject of the clause.

Front 36

4 Adverbial pronoun Forms:

Back 36

When – provides time
Where – Location
Why – Motive/Reason
How – Process

Front 37

Method by which we ask questions: (3 items)

Back 37

1. Pronominalize
2. Transport
3. Subject/verb inversion.

"Who did you go to the party with?"
"You went to the party with James."

If “James/Who” is the subject, “go to the party” is the verb, we see how this functions. What was “James” at the end of the sentence becomes “who” at the head. Pronominalize - Transport = subject/verb inversion.

Front 38

_____________are looking for truth/falsity. Posing the question in this way indicates the kind of information we’re looking for.

Back 38

Yes/No or Short Answer questions

Front 39

Contrary to popular belief, Yes/No and Short Answer questions are the ONLY questions which change

Back 39

the intonation curve. A typical question, one using an interrogative, has the same intonation as a statement.

Front 40

__________can technically stand on their own when posing a question, though it sounds archaic: “Have you any chocolate?” opposed to:
“Do you have any chocolate about your person?” “No. Did you really think I would?”

Back 40

Be verbs

Front 41

__________is the normative process for asking a question. It sets up certain expectations of the answer. Though there are questions that violate the transformative process, they carry a different implication. These questions are known as hook questions.

Back 41

The transformative process

Front 42

_________ sectionalize, they subdivide any given group. “Some of you in this classroom are wearing sandals” subdivides the classroom. “Anyone with a cleft palate blah blah blah” etc.

Back 42

Partitives

Front 43

Combine forms of Universal and Partitive:

Back 43

Universal: {Every + Body, Thing, One} = Everybody, Everything, Everyone
Partitive: {Any, No, Some + Body, Thing, One} = Anybody, Nobody, Somebody,
Anything, Nothing, Something,
Anyone, No one, Someone

Front 44

"_______" is the penultimate pronoun and can function in ways which other pronouns cannot. While other pronouns replace noun phrases, “_____” can replace individual nouns within the noun phrase.

Back 44

one

Eg. “Did you see the woman who walked down the hall? Man was she beautiful!” “Which one?” “The one who walked down the hall.” - “One” replaces/pronominalizes “the woman.” Or, “The big hungry dog.” Can become “The big hungry one” they’re always hungry though, so maybe “hungry” isn’t the best modifier for dogs… :)

Front 45

In a passive sentence, the indefinite pronoun can be

Back 45

deleted.
Deleting indefinite pronouns in a passive sentence is really deleting a redundancy clause. This is NOT type 1 relative reduction, but it’s similar enough. Indefinite pronouns do not label a specific subject, so by making a statement that’s subject is an indefinite passive, we can remove agency.
Eg. Active: “Someone choked the kitten.”
Passive: “The kitten was choked by someone”
Passive deleted: “The kitten was choked.” We remove agency, because it doesn’t matter.

Front 46

Modification: Indefinite pronouns allow us to

Back 46

post-pose a modifying adjective.
Eg. “I want someone sweet.” “sweet” modifies “someone.” The meaning of the sentence would change from “I want someone who is sweet” to “I want this person to be sweet” if we said “I want Sally sweet.” It doesn’t really make sense.
Alternate example: “He placed something important in the barrel.” “Important” modifies “something,” not “barrel,” so it too is postposed.

Front 47

Social reciprocity is “a response in kind” – *** for tat, etc. ___________ pronouns are pretty much the same thing. They relate equally to each other.

Back 47

Reciprocal

Front 48

There are only 2 basic reciprocal pronouns.

Back 48

Each other – refers to 2 individual things
Another – refers to multiple individual things

Alternate form eg. Matthew Arnold, in his poem “The Dover Beach” writes “Let us be true, one to the other” “One to the other” is a form of “One another”

Front 49

Adjective Definition, notional and functional:

Back 49

Notional: an adjective is a word that modifies a noun. Collocates with – when we think of a noun, we also think of things that group with that noun. In my case “Car: red, Fast, truck, freedom”

Functional:
1. a word may be an adjective if it can accept an adjectival inflectional morpheme [er – est]
2. a word may be an adjective if it contains a typical adjective forming derivational affix.–ic, phobic, y, ly, cowardly, ous, magnanimous, al psychological, ate deliberate, ful bountiful, ible, able ish etc.
3. a word may be an adjective if it is preceded by a word that typically precedes and adjective. These are manner adverbs and degree adverbs.

Front 50

2 types of adjectives

Back 50

Limiting – circumscribing. Numbers or restricts the noun. “Sixteen candles” or “most people”
Descriptive – describes aspect or attribute of the noun. “long neck” “purple undies.”

Front 51

3 Degrees of adjectives –

Back 51

Normative – no degree, like simple verbs this is the baseline. Pretty. Radiant.
Comparative – comparing two groups, marked [typically] by “+er” or +more. Prettier, more radiant.
Superlative – Comparing 3+ groups, marked [typically] by “+est” or +most. Prettiest, most radiant.

Front 52

Supplitive adjectives – [like supplitive everything elses] are

Back 52

irregular, meaning that the comparative and superlative forms are different, not +er or +est. Eg. Good – Good  Better  Best instead of Gooder  Goodest.

Front 53

Absolute adjectives cannot be made ____________

Back 53

comparative or superlative.
The law of the excluded middle. one thing cannot be more–dead or deader than another. Full or not full.
Technically, we DO make these comparative and superlative, but we do it by using “more nearly” and “most nearly.”

Front 54

A predicative adjective follows a

Back 54

linking verb (sentence pattern 2)

Front 55

An Attributive adjective appears in front of

Back 55

a noun

Front 56

5 Questions for an Adjective

Back 56

what kind
which
whose
how much
how many

Front 57

3 Adjectival structures:

Back 57

single
phrasal
clausal

Front 58

single adjectives are:

Back 58

the base form

Front 59

3 types of phrasal adjectives

Back 59

Prepositional phrases can function as either adjectives or adverbs
Participle Phrases – An adjective or complement to certain auxiliaries that is regularly derived from the verb in many languages, and refers to participation in the action or state of the verb; A verbal form used as an adjective. It does not specify person or number in English, but may show tense. “A burning candle.” Or “A devoted friend”
Infinitive phrases – a verb form found in many languages that functions as a noun or is used with auxiliary verbs, and that names the action or state without specifying the subject. It makes me sad that “To infinity and beyond” isn’t an infinitive.

Front 60

Clausal adjectives are:

Back 60

Relative clauses [for the moment, that’s it. Relative clauses]

Front 61

Under limiting and descriptive, there are 4 other types of adjectives:

Back 61

True, Suppletive, Absolute, Unique

Front 62

Position – The four positions that an adjective can occupy.

Back 62

Prenominal – Attributive adjective, occurs in front of the noun.
Predicative – following a linking verb [sentence patterns 2 and 4 only]
Object Complement – Follows a direct object [sentence pattern #9]
Postposed – Follows the noun, but doesn’t present any particular function. Generally the noun it follows is an INDEFINITE PRONOUN. “I want something sweet” Sweet is the adjective, “something” is the indefinite pronoun.

Front 63

Definition of an Adverb notional and functional:

Back 63

Definitions:
Notional – A word that modifies a verb [Ad to verb], adjective, or other adverb.
There are 22 classifications of adverbs. We’re not covering all of them. Breathe.

Functional –
A word may be an adverb if it can accept an inflectional morpheme [er/est]
A word may be an adverb if it contains a typical adjective forming derivational affix: ly, ward, wise
A word may be an adverb if it is preceded by a word that typically precedes an adverb.

Front 64

3 Adverbs structural representation:

Back 64

1. Singly [self explanatory]
2. phrase groups [Prepositional phrases and infinitive phrases]
3. Clauses [Which are invariably introduced by a subordinate conjunction]

Front 65

Adverb Questions

Back 65

when, where, why, how, to what extent

Front 66

3 Degrees in Adverbs

Back 66

normative, comparitive, superlative

Front 67

3 types of Adverbs

Back 67

Manner, Sentential, Degree

Front 68

Manner adverbs

Back 68

tend to be LY adverbs, because they describe the manner of the action. “She danced beautifully” describes the manner in which she danced. “He ate ravenously” etc.

Front 69

Sentential adverbs 2

Back 69

Modify the whole sentence.
Persuasive Device
T “Obviously you see my point. ” “Surely you understand that purple elephants are superior to the green ones.” The adjective makes a comment on whatever follows. Diagrams like an exclamation

Front 70

Basic Sentence Structure of English

Back 70

Subject Verb Compliment

Front 71

Rule of Adverb Movement

Back 71

NP V x Adv
1

Hint 71

2 3 4 = 4123

Front 72

Explain "There" insertion and the difference between and existential operator and an adverb.

Back 72

Existential Operator (Existential is either a nominal or an interjection):
"There is an animal in the room. 'An is an indefinite, therefore, 'there' is existential"
There are 27 animals in the room––existential
There is the animal in the room– Adverb
There are those animals in the room– Adverb
There are these animals in the room– Adverb

Front 73

3 Coordinate Conjunctions

Back 73

Simple, Correlative, Conjunctive Adverbs

Front 74

Simple Conjunctions

Back 74

and, or, but, (so)

(additive, alteration, contrast, conclusion)

Front 75

Correlative Conjunctions

Back 75

either/or
neither/nor
not only/but also
both/and

not both/ and

whether/ or

Front 76

conjunctive Adverbs:

Back 76

therefore, nevertheless, moreover, hence, thus, yet consequently, however

Front 77

Conjunctions=________ values

Back 77

Truth Values;
and= true, true
either/or= one must be true
And/or= inclusive
Either/or= exclusive
but= contrast
so= conclusion

Front 78

2 kinds of conjunctions

Back 78

Coordinate, Subordinate

Front 79

define Subordinate Conjunction

Back 79

A word or short string of words that joins 2 clauses and makes the clause a dependent, adverbial clause.

Front 80

10 functions which subordinate conjunctions fulfill

Back 80

TEMP2R2C3
Time, Evidence, Manner, Purpose, Place, REason, Result, Concession, Condition, Comparison

Ex.

1. She came after he left. – Time
2. He is here for I hear his laughter. – Evidence
3. She started as if she’d been shot. – Manner
4. They died so that we might live. – Purpose
5. She went where he wanted to go. – Place
6. They went because they thought it was their duty. – Reason
7. He was so popular that they elected him class clown. – Result
8. She will go if you’ll pay her way. – Condition
9. I started out although I didn’t want to – Concession
10. He is as strong as an ox. Comparison. (___ as X as ___ works pretty invariantly. X can be anything. As strong as an ox, as slow as a turtle, as weak as a butterfly etc as silly as a simile)

Front 81

Verb notional definition and functional:

Back 81

A word may be a verb if it can accept an inflective morpheme [s, ed, en]
A word may be a verb if it contains a typical verb forming derivational affix.
A word may be a verb if it can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a verb.

Front 82

A verb provides 5 (+1) pieces of information [beyond the obvious]. Memorize these, they’re important!

Back 82

VATPNM
1. Voice – Active/Passive
2. Aspect – Simple [0], Progressive, Perfect, Perfect Progressive
3. Tense – Past, present, future
4. Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd
5. Number – Singular/Plural
6. (Mood – Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive: most of the time we speak in Indicative, our superlative and subjunctive moods exist, but we don’t generally use formal markers, which is why this is in parentheses.)

Front 83

3 Moods we discussed

Back 83

Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive

Front 84

Indicative mood means

Back 84

the mood of every day discourse

Front 85

Imperative mood means

Back 85

mood of command
headless verb

Front 86

Subjunctive mood

Back 86

The mood of doubt, tentative, caustious, contrary to fact, wish fullfillment, polite conversation
once upon a time,

Front 87

Subjunctive Mood uses 3 kinds of conditions

Back 87

sufficient condition– if
necessary condition– only if
necessary sufficient condition– if and only if

Front 88

Modals are:

Back 88

Auxiliary verbs which place a condition on a main verb. Whether it is a true modal or a periphrastic modal, they fulfill the same conditions.

Front 89

Modal Conditions:

Back 89

OPAFAN
Obligation, Permission, Actuality, Futurity, Ability, Necessity

Front 90

10 True Modals Syntactic Present and Past

Back 90

Present: May can will shall must out to
Past: might could would should

Front 91

2 Types of Modals

Back 91

True/periphrsatic

Front 92

Periphrastic Modals

Back 92

(be/have) X to

Front 93

Modals fulfill 3 functions

Back 93

question emphasis negation

Front 94

Which True modal express these conditions:
Permission
Possibility
Necessity
obligation
futurity

Back 94

Permission may
Possibility might
necessity must
obligation ought to
futurity will

Front 95

Which periphrastic modals express these conditions:
Permission
Possibility
Necessity
obligation
futurity

Back 95

Permission be allowed to
Possibility am able to
Necessity have got to
obligation have to
futurity am going to

Front 96

Passive Voice is marked by:

Back 96

B+ past participle

Front 97

4 types of Aspect

Back 97

simple, progressive, perfect, perfect–progressive

Front 98

Active Progressive formula

Back 98

be+Ving (I am biting)

Front 99

Active Perfect formula

Back 99

Hve/Has/Had +Ven (I have bitten)

Front 100

Active Perfect Progressive formula

Back 100

Has/Had/Have+ [Ven+Be] + Ving (I have been biting)

Front 101

Passive Simple formula

Back 101

Be+Ven (I am bitten)

Front 102

Passive Progressive formula

Back 102

Be+ (be+Ving {being}) + Ven. (I am being bitten)

Front 103

Passive Perfect Formula

Back 103

Have/Has/Had +(Be+Ven {been})+ ven “I have been bitten.”

Front 104

Passive Perfect Progressive

Back 104

Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+[be+ving]+Ven “I have been being bitten”

Front 105

Define Participle

Back 105

A verb used as an adjective
Winning Coaches
Blushing Maidens
Sanded Floors
Understood Subject

Front 106

Relative REduction type 1

Back 106

NP Rel Pro Np V X= 1,0,3,4,5

Front 107

Relative Reduction type 2

Back 107

NP Relpro Be X= 1,0,0,4
I saw the man who was running the show.
I saw the man running the show.

Front 108

Present and Past Participle formula:

Back 108

Present= Ving The man (running the projector)–adj is...
Past= Ven The man beholden to Zues was Thor.

Front 109

Gerund

Back 109

Participle functioning as a noun
Running the projector is fun.
Running is a great sport.

Front 110

Functional Definition of a Verb

Back 110

A word may be a verb if it can accept an inflective morpheme [s, ed, en]
A word may be a verb if it contains a typical verb forming derivational affix.
A word may be a verb if it can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a verb.

Front 111

A verb provides 5 (+1) pieces of information [beyond the obvious]. Memorize these, they’re important!

Back 111

1. Voice – Active/Passive
2. Aspect – Simple [0], Progressive, Perfect, Perfect Progressive
3. Tense – Past, present, future
4. Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd
5. Number – Singular/Plural
6. (Mood – Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive: most of the time we speak in Indicative, our superlative and subjunctive moods exist, but we don’t generally use formal markers, which is why this is in parentheses.)

Front 112

English is classified as a 2 tense system of________

Back 112

Past and Present
We don’t classify it as a 3 tense system because in order to get a future–tense we have to add in extra words; by modifying the infinitive stem we can only achieve past and present tense.

Front 113

Verb + Modification [internally or affix] =

Back 113

Tense

Front 114

4 Principle parts of a verb

Back 114

1. Infinitive Stem – The simplest form of the word which we can then modify. Drink
2. Past – Defines the difference between regular/irregular verbs. Drank
3. Past Participle – Ven, irregular verb forms have marked past participle morphemes. Drunk
4. Present Participle – Stem + Ing. That’s all it is. Many grammarians don’t classify this as a major verb part. Drinking

Front 115

the past form of a verb defines __________

Back 115

the difference between regular (weak) and irregular (strong) verbs.

Front 116

Regular verbs – form the past–tense by using a ________.

Back 116

detal suffix.

Front 117

the detal suffix comes in 3 forms – 2 of which assimilate, 1 which is dissimilate.

Back 117

Regular +d voiced assimilation, +t unvoiced assimilation and + ed dissimilation

Front 118

If the word ends in a D or T sound [like Put  Putted] there needs to be a distinction between the end of the word and the __________

Back 118

detal suffix.

Front 119

Past and participle forms of regular verbs are _______.

Back 119

identical.

Front 120

Irregular verbs – form the past tense by an ____________.

Back 120

ablaut change.

Front 121

The Ablaut is a ____________________________.

Back 121

vowel gradation within the verb – it is a change in pitch/locus of the tongue. Air is directed over different parts of the tongue, causing
Sing – infinitive stem. Sang – past. Sung – past participle. Drink, Drank, Drunk – same principle.
If there is a change in the vowel between the infinitive stem and the past–tense it IS irregular. Even if there is a detal suffix, if there is a vowel change in the verb, it IS irregular.

Front 122

Past Participle Functions: Can be used in

Back 122

Perfect aspect,
Perfect Progressive aspect,
Passive voice,
or adjectivally.

Front 123

3 ways to Differentiate between past and past–participle forms:

Back 123

When the verb is simply past, we can’t use any other verb form. [simple, past]
When the construction is N – Verb, it’s a past form. The noun is acting out the verb.
When the construction is N – Verb, it’s past–participle. The noun is being acted on.

“The dog walked by me” – the dog is walking, therefore it’s simply a past–form verb
“The dog, walked by me, got off it’s leash and ran across 11th Ave.” In this case, since “me” is walking the dog, it’s a past–participle form.

Front 124

Modals:

Back 124

Auxiliary verbs which place a condition on a main verb.

Front 125

Whether it is a true modal or a periphrastic modal, they fulfill the same 5 conditions which are:

Back 125

Futurity
Obligation
Ability
Permission
Necessity.

Front 126

There are how many true modals? (They cannot be conjugated. With modals there is no specific tense associated, just a syntactic tense.

Back 126

10

Front 127

Syntactic Present Modals:

Back 127

May
Can
Will
Shall
Must
Ought [to]

Front 128

Syntactic Past Modals:

Back 128

Might
Could
Would
Should

Front 129

Modals fulfill 3 functions –

Back 129

Question, Emphasis, and Negation

Front 130

Periphrastic Modals:

Back 130

Fulfill the same functions as true modals and place the same conditions on the verb, but use more words to do it.

Front 131

The formula for creating periphrastic modals is:

Back 131

(Be/Have) X to
Where X is the adjective or noun which provides information.
We have homework to finish. [We have to finish our homework?]
I am able to breathe. Most days, anyway. Not today, but most days.

Front 132

Voice – Active and passive voice are

Back 132

a question of who does what to whom.

Front 133

In active voice, the Verb is

Back 133

Doing. “I am hugging Lily.” The verb “hug” is performing the action. I, the subject, am performing the action of hugging my dog, Lily. Lily is very huggable.
“Lily is being hugged by me.” the sentences are equivalent in that the dog is hugged, hugging is happening to the dog and I am the person doing it, but the verb form has changed. The dog is also getting tired of my demonstrating on her.

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Sentence patterns 1–6 cannot be

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passifised. Only a sentence with a TRANSITIVE VERB can be passifised, everything else is automatically active.

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Passive voice is marked by B+ ________

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Past Participle. Difficult to tell just here because “hugged” is a regular verb, but it’s the past participle form.

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4 parts of Aspect:

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Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect Progressive

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Aspect Define:
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect Progressive

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Simple – This is unembellished action. The baseline against which we can compare the other three aspects. Bite.
Progressive – Denotes on–going action.
Perfect – The action has been completed by the time of report
Perfect–Progressive – The action, which was ongoing, has been completed by time of report.

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Formulas/Active Markers– What would the word bite be in active/simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive

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Simple – No formula. 0 “I bite”
Progressive – Be+Ving [present participle]. “I am biting”
Perfect – Have/Has/Had + Ven [past participle] “I have bitten.”
Perfect–Progressive –Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+Ving “I have been biting”

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Formulas/Passive Markers – What would the word bite be in passive/simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive

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Simple – Be+ven. “I am bitten”
Progressive – Be+(be+Ving{being})+Ven. “I am being bitten”
Perfect – Have/Has/Had +(Be+Ven {been})+ ven “I have been bitten.”
Perfect–Progressive – Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+[be+ving]+Ven “I have been being bitten”

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Verp+Particle forms are

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an up and coming pattern in English that we’re beginning to see more and more of. They’re composed of a verb and a particle [go freaking figure] treated as one semantic unit. The particle tends to be a preposition.
Examples: Run in. Throw up. Look Up. Etc.
When we see a sentence like “Jack looked up the dress” we’re not sure whether Jack is doing a job or being a jerk,

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There are 5 tests for determining whether a verb is a verb+particle form.

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1. Close 1–word synonym – if there is a single word we can use to replace the potential Verb+Part, it is one. This is the best test, the other four are more… support. Eg. “Jack looked up the dress.” Could easily be “Jack googled the dress.” Yes. I did just use google as a verb.
2. Movement – “Jack looked the dress up.” We move the particle “Jack threw up his breakfast.”  “Jack threw his breakfast up.”
3. Pronoun Replacement – if we take the noun to be the object, and pronominalize it, “Jack looked up it” changes the intended meaning, so we have to do the same thing we did with movement: “Jack looked it up.”
4. Passification – The dress was looked up by Jack” “looked up” is still the same semantic unit, “Up the dress looked Jack” makes… very little sense. And sounds a bit twisted fairy–tale. Haha. Breakfast was thrown up by Jack. XD
5. Pseudo–clefting. – cutting something loose, in clefting you move it, in pseudo–clefting you do not. “Jack looked up what” becomes “What Jack looked up was the dress.” We cleave apart “looked up” from the object. John likes apples. What John likes is apples. What + be

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Mood –

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Expresses the speaker/narrator’s attitude towards both audience and object.

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Indicative mood–

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conversational mood, normal dialogue mood. This is the mood we use when we talk about conjugating verbs.

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Imperative

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the mood of command
 Imperatives are GENERALLY without a head. The only time an imperative has a head is when the subject is an indefinite pronoun. “Somebody get me a laudanum!” Otherwise, the subject is an implied “you.”
 Proof of the implied subject can be found by adding “Yourself” or “will you” to the end of the imperative, the reflexive pronoun “yourself” can only reflect on the subject “you.” “Get me a cup of coffee, will you?” – “Go get it yourself, Jerk.”
 The verb in the imperative mood has no tense, it has to be the infinitive stem. “Stand up.” Versus “Be standing!” or “Have been stood!”  I like that one.
 Only effective when: Speaker fulfills an appropriate social condition. [has the authority to make demands]
 Only effective using a performative verb [if the verb cannot be performed, the imperative is useless. “Grow taller!” doesn’t work except for in bad humor]

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Subjunctive –

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the mood of doubting, tentative, cautious, contrary to fact, wish fulfillment.
If the statement fulfills any of the above definition, IT IS SUBJUNCTIVE
 There are 3 formal markers of the subjunctive mood
 there are 3 conditions of the subjunctive mood
 Hypothetical syllogism is the basis of the subjunctive mood.

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3 Conditions of Subjunctive:

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1. Sufficient condition [If  Then]
2. Necessary condition [Only if  then]
3. Necessary and sufficient condition [If and only if  then]

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The basic premise of the subjunctive mood is

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“If X, then Y.”
“If Alison were queen, we would all lose our heads” the “then” is implied, but it is still subjunctive.

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3 Formal Markers of the Subjunctive:

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was–were, invariant be, dropping s
Was  Were
“If Alison were queen, we would all lose our heads.” “Alison” is a singular noun, so the Be verb functioning here SHOULD be singular, but because it’s in the subjunctive mood, it’s plural. This discrepancy between the singular subject and plural verb is the key to all three formal markers.
The distinction between was/were is largely due to dialect, but in formal speech/writing, “were” is correct.
“If Alison was queen, we would all lose our heads.” Is still the subjunctive mood because it fulfills the definition of being contrary to fact and [in Alison’s case] a wish. 

Invariant Be
“I recommend that Rachel be beheaded.” Rachel is a 3rd person Singular Noun in the present tense, in the indicative mood the verb would also be 3rd person singular, present “is” but this creates a logical snafu. “I recommend that Rachel is beheaded” makes no sense, because you cannot recommend a statement of fact.

Dropping S
“I recommend that Rachel retire from active combat.” Again, Rachel is 3rd person Singular noun in the present tense, so the verb should also be singular, but it is plural here because otherwise it makes no sense. Norm didn’t really go into details on why this is logically nonsensical, but “I recommend that Rachel retires from active combat” is … just not right. Or how about “Rachel should retire from active combat.” Also Singular/Plural Noun/Verb mismatching, but makes more sense to me. Should gives us the modal but it’s also subjunctive.

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Syllogism – functions in 3 parts.

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Major Premise – General condition
Minor Premise – Specific
Conclusion

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– Therefore, includes both major and minor terms.
In all introductory logic classes we see this syllogism

All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
This is a categorical syllogism, there are no conditions placed on the major premise.

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There are 4 possible outcomes of a major premise such as “If X =Y”

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1. Affirming the antecedent to affirm the consequent.
2. Denying the antecedent to deny the consequent.
3. Affirming the consequent to affirm the antecedent
4. Denying the consequent to affirm the antecedent.

Of these four possible outcomes, only 2 are actually VALID arguments.
If we use Norm’s example from class, the major premise is:
“If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101”

1. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny has sexy legs. Therefore, Jenny will pass HPR101.
This is valid. Jenny fulfills X, therefore she will fulfill Y.

2. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny has thunder thighs. Therefore Jenny will not pass HPR101.
This is invalid. Jenny does not have Y, but she might be really smart, so she still has the potential to pass.

3. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101, Jenny Passed HPR101, therefore Jenny has sexy legs.
This is invalid. Again, Jenny may have passed on her academic merits, not on the sexiness of her legs.

4. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny Failed HPR101, therefore Jenny does not have sexy legs.
This is valid. Jenny failed to fulfill Y, therefore she cannot have fulfilled X.

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Selectional Restriction–

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Words use that we restrict simply because we do.

Eg. “Ray is pretty.” We generally don’t refer to men as “pretty” once they’re past the baby stage because of certain amounts of cultural conditioning etc. Men have to be handsome, or rugged, or whatever, rarely “pretty.”

Metaphors play on this concept a lot. When we say things like “My lawnmower eats rocks” we accept that as a metaphor, and we accept the image that comes with it because to “eat” a thing [the subject] must generally be living and animate; a lawnmower is neither, but we still contextually accept, for the moment, that “Lawnmower” may be +/– Animate. Also, the object “rocks” has to be, in this context, Edible. Rocks are not edible. That may be the one part of my education that I didn’t have to learn the hard way, but rocks are not edible. Except… in this particular context, rocks are edible by an animate lawnmower. So the metaphor works.
A phrase functions because of subject/verb and object/verb arrangement, and the context in which those arrangements are read. Taken completely literally, and using absolutely strict selectional restriction, “My lawnmower eats rocks” wouldn’t function at all.

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Do Verbs – Do verbs function in 2 ways –

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as do–support and as proverbs.

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Pro–verbs:

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if the pronoun replaces a noun but functions as a full reference, the do–verb acts as a proverb, replacing a verb and functioning as a full reference.
For this reason, “the first reference must be a full reference, the second and all subsequent references can be proverbalized until there is an intervening reference.” Sound familiar?

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Do–support:

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are essentially modals. Any time there is no auxiliary verb [including be] we add in do–support which serves the same 3 functions of modals. Question. Emphasis. Negation.

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Emphasis (do support)

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I do run

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Negation (Do support)

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I don’t run
I won’t run
I can’t run

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Question (Do support)

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Do I run?
Will I run?
Can I run?

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Word Order – The first and last of everything are

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points of emphasis. The last item in a sentence, paragraph, book, whatever is rhetorically more important than the first, but we PAY ATTENTION to the ends. Word order gives us cohesive language, putting two items [or like–things] close together better connects them rhetorically, which is why passification is such a productive process.

“I like him” versus “Him, I like.” Getting “Him” and “I” as close as possible in the same sentence cements that relationship.

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a vowel gradation, i.e. it is the process by which the radical (stem) vowel in an irregular verb is changed from present to past tense (also, usually changes the past participle form).

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An ablaut

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The term ______ has two sense in grammar: 1) it is a nominal that has an implicational relationship to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical relationship (function); 2) it is condition in which there is no middle term, such as in suppletive forms of adverbs and adjectives and in the exclusive either/or correlative conjunction.

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Absolute

Front 161

__________takes an adverb that has been generated at the end of the sentence and moves it to the front of the sentence.

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Adverb movement

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_________is the process whereby a sentence pattern is reduced to a complex noun phrase.

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Complementation

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____________ is a word (morpheme) that acts as the subordinator in complementation.

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Complementizer

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A __________ is a coordinating conjunction that joins clauses and indicated the logical relationship between the clauses that it joins.

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Conjunctive adverb

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A __________ is a linking verb, in particular the "Be" verb

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Copula

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A ________ is a participle functioning as a noun, also described as a Ving form functioning as a noun.

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Gerund

Front 167

The ___________ is the mood of command and is characterized by being headless (no stated subject) and using the infinitive stem of the verb.

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Imperative mood

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The ____________ is the mood of everyday discourse, with statements based on fact or the assumption of fact; it is also the only mood that can be fully conjugated in English.

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Indicative mood

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__________ is the smallest non–divisible part of a proposition.

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Nexus

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_________ is a nominal absolute with the internal structure of a noun phrase modified by a participle.

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Nominative absolute

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An ________ class admits new members

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Open class

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___________ is the removal of redundant information in an adjoining clause or sentence pattern up to the point of distinctiveness.

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Overlap deletion

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A __________ is formed using the preposition "of."

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Periphrastic Genitive

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_____________ means a process by which new members are admitted into a class.

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Productive

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____________is the repetition of material unnecessarily.

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Redundancy

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The first mention of a nominal is a full reference: thereafter, it is pronominalized until a new reference intervenes.

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Rule of Pronominalization

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A _________ is one that modifies the entire sentence.

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Sentential adverb

Front 178

____________are nexal patterns in the language based on the internal structure involved in the formation of the verb phrase.

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Sentences patterns

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____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.

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Tag question

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_____________________ types a are simple, complex, compound, and compound complex.

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Traditional grammatical sentence classification

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______ verb is an irregular verb, one that forms its past tense by affecting the pitch of the vowel in the verb stem.

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Strong verb

Front 182

____________ is a word that joins two clauses together and in the process makes the clause it introduces dependent (subordinate) by satisfying one of 10 subordinate conjunction functions.

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Subordinate conjunction

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______________ is the mood of doubting, cautious, contrary to fact, tentative, wish fulfillment statements or utterances.

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Subjunctive mood

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A __________ is an irregular form.

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Suppletive

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The term ________ means direct address.

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Vocative

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___________ is a regular verb, i.e., one that forms its past tense by adding a dental suffix to the stem.

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Weak verb

Front 187

A ____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.

Back 187

Yes/no questions:

Front 188

___________is an auxiliary verb that satisfies the formula
{Be/Have} X

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to.

Hint 188

A periphrastic modal