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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Camillo Golgi (1843-1926), Italian Physician discovered what and when?
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in the early 1870's that silver chromate selectively stained dead neurons black
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Using the Golgi stain, researchers found...
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that the Purkinje cells reside in the cerebellum
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Light microscope invented when?
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1890's
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Which two people worked with light microscopes to view Cellular neuroanatomy?
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Cajal (1937) and Brodmann (1909)
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Electron microscope invented when?
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1950's
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Golgi type I vs type II
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lons axons vs. short axons
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In 1880's Franz Nissl (1860-1919), a german histologist discovered that
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Methylene blue stains cell bodies, cresyl violet stains all CNS cells
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Motor neurons have....whereas sensory neurons have...
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large and small Nissl bodies.
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myelin staining stains
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myelin black
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horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is...
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an enzyme found in horseradish roots that can be injected into nervous system and surrounding cell bodies/axons will take it up
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Skull X-ray was invented by....
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Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen (1845-1923) earning him a 1901 nobel prize in physics
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X-ray's travel through body tissues at different rates (absorption)
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Faster in low-density tissue (water) absorbed in high-density (bone)
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Radiotherapy:
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x-rays can destroy diseased tissue
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Air encephalogram/ pneumoencephalogram is a radiographic (x-ray) visualization of the fluid-containing structures of the brain (ventricles, spinal column) by
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withdrawal of CSF by lumbar puncture and replaced by a gas (air, O2, helium) ventricles then appear dark and clearly outlline surrounding tissue.
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Computed transaxial tomography (CT) was invented in and when?
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Great Britain in 1971 and introduced to the US in '72.
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CT taken at 20 degree angle to avoid
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scanning the air containing sinuses which distort the image because of low density (air) and high (bone)
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X-ray film can detect differences in density of
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10% to 15% whereas CT can measure as small as 1% (changes as small as 2 mm in diameter)
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Slices of CT can be as thin/thick as
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2mm-13mm
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In a CT scan bone is.... and CSF is ..... (myelin in white matter is lighter)
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high density (white) and low density (dark)
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hypodensity (low density) is
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is associated with anold lesion
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hyperdensity (high) signals an
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abnormal density such as a tumor or a bleed
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enhanced CT involves
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intravenously injecting a contrast agent
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If contrast material in CT enters brain:
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leaks into brain are either lesions causing increased vascularization or defective blood-brain barrier
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Angiography is the x-ray of blood vessels in the brain after
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introducting contrast material into the arterial or venous bloodstream
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Femorocerebral angiography developed in the 1950's introduces...
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...a catheter into the arterial system via the femoral artery guided up the aorta to the aortic arch
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Femorocerebral angiography catheter can be placed in the
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brachiocephalic artery, the right verterbral artery, or the left subclavian artery
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brachiocephalic artery
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to the common right carotid
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the right verterbral artery travels
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to the left common carotid which leads to the left internal and external carotid artery,
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the left subclavian artery connects
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connects to the left vertebral artery.
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Digital subtraction angiography is particularly effective in enhancing visualization of
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blood vessels, including the morphologic and physiologic states of the arterial, capillary and venous phases of the cerebral circulation.
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Intravenous angiography is where the specialist inserts the catheter in
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the patients arm but must pass it through the heart, then the lungs and then to the left side of the heart before it reaches the aoritc arch.
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Risk in angiography is loosening of plaques in the arteries that
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travel to a smaller location where they can block the flow of blood leading to an embolism.
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Sodium amytal injections (Wafa technique) via arterial catheter that temporarily anesthetizes one hemisphere.
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Used in clinically to determine the lateralizaiton of language before temporal lobectomy is performed.
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Austrian psychiatrist Hans Berger first discovered in 1924 that patterns of elctrical activity can be recorded using metal electrodes placed on the human head. This process is called ...
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Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the electrical activity of nerve cells of the brain through electrodes attached to various locations on the scalp.
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EEG was the first...
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first dynamic way to measure brain function
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EEG is mostly a measure of
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pyramidal nerve cell activity.
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Amplitude of EEG ranges from
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5 to 100 mV
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Gamma activity (35+ Hz) is a low-amplitude fast activity wave associated with...
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associated with peak performance and stress
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frequency of EEG ranges from 1 to 100 Hz
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1 to 100 Hz
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Beta activity is a
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low-amp., fast-activity wave w/ frequency of more than 12 Hz
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What are high beta (18-35hz), mid-beta (15-18 Hz) and low beta (12-15 Hz associated with?
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narrow focus, overarousal, anxiety ; active, alert, excited, or focused ; and relaxed, external attention
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Alpha activity (8-12 Hz) is the predominant backgoround activity in wakeful persons. Associated with....
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quiet, passive, resting, but wakeful states
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Theta activity ranges from 4 to 7 Hz and is most indicative of
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drowsiness, deeply relaxed states, and inwarly focused states
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Delta activity is the slowest frequency (<0.5-4 Hz) High-voltage, slow-frequncy delta waves are...
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never present in a wakeful, healthy person, but mostly occur during non-rapid eye movement (nondream) deep stage 4 sleep
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Neurons who fire in synchronized oscilations by taking cues from other cells are known as
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Pacemaker cells or k neurons
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Neurons who fire in a rhythmic pattern in response to collective behavior such as in
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Delta wave sleep
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Seizures are the most extreme
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form of synchronous brain activity
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Drugs that block GABA receptors
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increase possibility of a seizure and vice versa
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Multiple seizures typical of disorder called
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epilepsy
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electrocorticography (ECoG) isolates a precise location of the brain pathology by
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placing depth electrodes in the brain close to the projected area (risk of infection)
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evoked potential (EP) or event related potential (ERP) involves
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artificial stimulation of sensory fivers than generate electrical activity along the central and peripheral pathways.
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Brainstem auditory-evoked response (BAER) is done by
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examiner presenting clicks in ear causing electrical signal alon the central auditory pathways.
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BAER measures delays in responses pinpointing
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any lesions in auditory nerve, cochlear nucleus, superior olive, lateral lemniscus, and inferior colliculus
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Five characteristic waves are recorded in BAER: Waves I-V
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Wave I reflects activity of vestibular nerve, wave ii-cochlear nucleus, wave iii-superior olivary complex, wave iv and v are pons or lower midbrain
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50% of MS patients have pathologic
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BAER typically at level of the brainstem
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Visual Evoked Response (VER) is done by:
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examiner presenting visual stimulus to each eye and recording EEG responses from electrodes over parietal and occipital regions
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normal VER delay:
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100ms
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Somatosensory-Evoked Response (SER) is done by:
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examiner stimulates peripheral nerves via electrode and measures EEG activity over contralateral somatosensory ctx.
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Electromyography (EMG) is the electrical analysis of
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muscles, done by performing a nerve conduction study of muscle to diagnose neuromuscular disease
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EMG is done by
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deep needle stimulation of muscle which technician measures electrophysiologically ventral (closer to spinal cord) of stimulation
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Anna O., Sigmund Freud's first famous case could have proved she was
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hysterical and did not suffer from neuromuscular disorder as she complained
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Ventricle to brain ratio:
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normal is 1.5%, high is 4% (caused by trauma)
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lumbar puncture is done by
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3.5 inch needle withdraws CSF from spinal cord perpendicular between thrid and fourth (or 4th and 5th) lumbar vertebrae.
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normal CSF pressure=
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100 mm
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Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures
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changes in magnetic fields generated by underlying electrical activity of active neurons
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Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) makes...
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MEG expensive
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MEG advantage
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provides more accurate seizure diagnosis than EEG (for epilepsy)
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MRI measures frequencies of
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magnetically pertubed water molecules and provides structural representation of brain
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fMRI works because
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oxygenated blood has slightly different magnetic properties than non-oxygenated blood
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MRI based on work of
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Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell, who won Nobel in '52 for nMRI
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medical application of nMRI in
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1970's
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MRI has a strong radiofrequency that perturbes
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hydrogen atoms 90 degrees followed by RF that perturbes them further
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MRI measures emission of
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of RF frequency while hydrogen atom spins back to equilibrium
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MRI measurements (3)
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hydrogen density, magnetic T1 and T2 relaxation times
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MRI can visualize structures as small as
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1 mm
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protons w/ short T1 values (solids) emit
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higher signal intensities and appear white on MRI
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protons w/ long T1 values (fluids) emit
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lower signal intensities and appear dark on MRI
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T2 measures loss of
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magnetic orientation (spin) after RF perturbation
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protons w/ long T2 values retain signal str.,
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high intensity signal and appear brighter
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In 1940's researchers introduced technique in which the patient
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inhaled N2O and measured total CBF per unit weight of brain per minute
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Lassen and Ingvar pioneered regional CBF (rCBF) by injecting via internal carotid...
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xenon 133 (133Xe) which emits a low gamma radiation and stays in bloodstream for 15 minutes
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3D imaging of rCBF is
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single-photon emission computer tomography (SPECT)
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SPECT is similar to PET which uses radionuclides, but doesnt require
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expensive cyclotron
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SPECT tracer takes
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2 days to clear system
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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measures glucose and oxygen metabolism in addition to blood flow
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PET works by intravenous injection of
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radioactive tracer (which can be attached to glucose) and scanning of brian for radioactivity
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Types of tracers used in PET
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carbon 11, nitrogen 13, oxygen 15 or fluorine 18
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Male brains showed maximum neural activity in the
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right frontal area during spatial task whereas females showed maximum activity in the right parietotemporal lobe
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Women are faster on tests that require
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perceptual speed and score high than men on a test of verbal fluency
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