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355 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Divisions of the Nervous System (NS)
CNS - spinal cord and brain
PNS: somatic and autonomic ns
Peripheral NS
Afferent nerves: from sense organs to brain
Efferent nerves: from CNS to muscles and glands
Divided into: Somatic and Autonomic NS
Somatic NS
Action of muscles and voluntary movement, responds to signals from senses
Autonomic NS
Nerves innervate smooth muscles, viscera, glands.
Involuntary activity - digestion, respiration rate, heartbeat
Correl with changes in emotion
Subdivisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic NS
EKG measures and GS
Sympathetic NS
Mobilizes: Fight or flight
Increased heart rate, pupil dilation, conversion of energy stores to glucose, increased blood flow to extremities, inhibition of digestion
Parasympathetic NS
Deactivates Sympathetic NS and active during state of relaxation
Decreased heart rate, activate digestion and elimination, conversion of glucose to fat
CNS
Both immersed in cerebrospinal fluid and contained within
Brain
1. Primitive core / Hindbrain: Top of spinal cord; regulates somatic activities breathing sleeping
2. Old brain / Limbic System / Midbrain: basic drives - hunger thirst, emotions
3. New brain / Forebrain: Cerebral cortex; higher cognitive, emotional, and motor functions
Spinal Cord
Organized longitudinally
Paraplegia: lower limbs paralyzed complete transection of cord
Quadriplegia: Top of cord all 4 limbs
Hemiplegia: partial transection - one side
Paresis: slight or partial paralysis
Parasthesis: Abnormal sensations, numbness, tingling, burning
Hyperesthesia: abnormal sensitivity to sensation
Some communication no brain involvement - spinal reflex - knee jerk
The Neuron
100 billion neurons and more Glial cells: physical support, nutrients, and means of cleaning debris in NS
The Neuron: 3 Parts
Cell body (soma): Made of cytoplasm, incl nucleus, contain chromosomes, within DNA, within mRNA (manufactures proteins).
Dendrites: Carry info to cell body, short fibers from cell body, several
Axon: long fiber, ends in terminal button, only 1, many branches, collaterals, carry info away from cell body
Neuronal Conduction
Process by which info is received and processed
Action potential
Threshold of electrical stimulation reached sends a nerve impulse into the axon
All-or-none law
Action potential is the same magnitude every time to fire
Stronger potential doesn't affect speed or magnitude but generates more action potentials
Speed of conduction
1. larger diameter of axon, greater the speed
2. Myelin sheath: saltatory conduction. Loss of myelin is MS (muscular weakness, poor coord, tremors)
Synapse
Small space that separates neurons
Pre: Sends info
Post: Receives
Neurotransmitter
Chemicals that carry info away from synapse
Manufactured in cell body, down axon, and stored in vesicles in terminal buttons
Action potential releases NTS into synapse then bind to receptors on dendrites of post synaptic neuron to begin conduction again
Excitatory or Inhibitory of action potential
Neuromodulators: in/decrease sensitivity to other neurons
2 Process of Terminating Synaptic Transmission
1. Reuptake: Terminal buttons take up excess NTS and store for later
2. Enzymatic degradation: Break down NTS into inactive metabolites and removed as waste
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Found in CNS, Autonomic NS, and Neuromuscular junction (Terminal buttons and muscle fibers) in Cholinergic neurons.
ACh - Excitatory effect
At neuromuscular junctions causes muscles to contract
Defects: impairments in voluntary movement
Curare blocks ACh receptors = paralysis
Myesthenia Gravis loss of receptors = muscle weakness
ACh - Inhibitory effect
Heart and respiratory muscles
Nerve gas and insecticides: inhibits breakdown of enzyme - accumulates in CNS and PNS - paralyzing respiratory = asphyxiation and death
ACh in the brain
Role in learning and memory
Loss of receptors in cortex and hippocampus occurs in Alz, drugs that interfere with ACh prevent formation of new memories.
Mediate sexual bx, REM sleep, sleep-wake cycle
Catecholamines
Epinephrine, Norephinephrine, Dopamine
Pers, mood, drive, sleep, memory
Lack of NE and DA - depression
Excess = SCZ
Dopamine
Excess - Tourette's and degeneration of neurons in Parkinson's (muscular rigidity and tremors)
Reinforcing action of stimulants: Coke: block reuptake
Nicotine: Stimulates release of neurons of mesolimbic system
Serotonin
Assoc with anxiety, mood, eating, sleep, arousal, temperature regulation, aggression, modulation of pain and migraine HA
Lack: Depression, OCD, PTSD, aggression
High: SCZ, Anorexia, Autism
Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)
Most abundant
Inhibitory: eat, sleep, anxiety, seizure
Low: Anxiety, Parkinson's, Huntington's Chorea (dementia and involuntary jerky movements in arms and legs)
Glutamate
Excitatory: learning, memory, long-term potentiation (short-long term memory in hippo)
Excitotoxicity: Overactivity seizures and stroke related brain damage in Alz and Huntington's
Endorphins
Neuromodulators that inhibit pain by bonding to opiate receptors, reduce activity in thalamus and cortex, result in feelings of pleasure
Acupuncture pain relief, sexual bx, emotions, memory and learning
Hindbrain
Brainstem: medulla oblongata and pons
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion
Damage = Fatal
Pons
Regulate state of arousal
Raphe nuclei (serotonin) trigger and maintain slow wave sleep
Cerebellum
Balance, coord, posture
Damage: Ataxia (slurred speech, severe tremors, loss of balance)
EPS, linked to ADHD
Midbrain
Substantia Nigra and Reticular Formation
Substantia Nigra
EPS
Movement: smooth, initiation, termination, directedness
Parkinson's deg of nigra neurons
Reticular Formation
Sleep and arousal, pain and touch, respiration and reflexes
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Reticular formation, thalamus, sensory areas: wake, arousal, attention
Selective attention
Damage: alter sleep-wake cycle or permanent coma like sleep
Forebrain
Hypothalamus, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
Control autonomic and endocrine via pituitary - maintain homeostasis - monitor internal state, control temp, fluids, metabolism, appetite for specific nutrients
Control: drinking, feeding, sex, aggression, maternal
Translation of strong feelings into physical response (heart rate) (rage, fear, excitement)
Hypothalamus
Contains Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) control circadian rhythms
Info from retina, interprets it, and passes it to pineal gland - secretes melatonin (rise at night) keeps cycles in sync
Thalamus
"Central switching station"
Incoming sensory info to cortex except for olfaction (amygdala in limbic system)
Info from cortex to subcortex
language memory, and motor activity - from cortex that leads to voluntary movement
Basal Ganglia
Includes caudate, globus pallidus, and putamen
Codes and relay info assoc with control of voluntary movement, motoric expressions of emotions and sensorimotor learning
Abnormalities: Tourettes, huntingtons, parkinsons, depression, mania, ocd, psychosis
Limbic System
Mediate emotional component of bx. Include amygdala, septum, and hippocampus
Amygdala
Integrates and directs emotional bx, attaches emotional significance to info, mediates defensive/aggressive bx
Damage: Lack of emot reponse

Kluver Bucy Syndrome: reduced fear and aggression, increased docility, altered dietary habits, "psychic blindness" (unable to recognize the significance of obj or sit) and hypersexuality
Septum
Inhibits emotionality
Septal rage syndrome: lesions: hyper-emot and vicious bx
Pleasure
Hippocampus
Memory and learning, memory consolidation, transfer from short to long term memory
Bilateral destruction of hippo, amygdala, and medial temporal lobes = severe anterograde amnesia - learn new but can't retain after time
Cortisol levels of stress impair memory
Assoc with again and Alz
Cerebral Cortex
Higher emotional, cognitive, sensory, motor functions
Last to stop growing after birth
R-L Hemispheres
4 Temporal Lobes: frontal, occipital, temporal, and parietal
Contralateral representation
Frontal Lobe
Motor bx, expressive language, higher-level cog processes, and orientation to time, place, person
Consists of primary motor cortex, premotor and prefrontal cortex
Primary motor cortex
Pyramidal motor system (fine, intricate movements and speed/strength of movements) and voluntary motor movement
Contralateral motor weakness, paralysis, apraxia (disruption complex purposeful movements)
Premotor Cortex
Broca's area: speech production
Broca's (expressive) aphasia: damage = Inability to use or understand language. Speak slowly and w/difficulty, few words, difficult to articulate, and are aware of deficits
Simulations of action - motor imagery and action observation
Prefrontal cortex
Pers expression, emotion, memory, and executive
Damage: Disrupt control and regulation of cog and planning
Decreased initiative, deficient self-awareness, difficulties with decision making, abstract thinking social control and perseveration
Changes in personality
Pseudodepression: apathy, lack of drive, little verbal output, inability to plan/focus attention
Pseudopsychopathy: Sexual disinhibition, coarse language, peculiar and facetious sense of humor, innappropriate social bx, lack of concern for others
Prefrontal decreased function
SCZ, Bipolar, ADHD, and aging cognitive decline
Temporal Lobe
Receptive language, memory, emotion
Primary auditory cortex: mediate input
Damage: auditory agnosia and deficits in selective attention
Lead to hall, del, mood disturb
Temporal Lobe: Wernicke's area
Comprehension of language
Wernicke's Aphasia, fluent or receptive. Normal sounding speech that doesnt make sense , dysnomia, unaware of deficits
Temporal Lobe: Conduction Aphasia
Damage from are connected bw Wernicke's and Broca's called arcuate fasciculus. Speaks and comprehends but can not repeat what was heard.
Temporal Lobe Damage
Involved in long term memory. Deja-vu experience, verbal and nonverbal learning, organic amnesia, anterograde, retrograde
Intellectual and short-term are intact
Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
Personality syndrome: Intense emotions, preoc with religious/philos beliefs, viscosity (stickyness), social cling, dwell on details, changes in sexual bx
Parietal Lobe
Primary Somatosensory Cortex on the Postcentral gyrus
Processing somatosensory input (touch-pressure, pain, temperature) and intergrat;io with visual and other sensory info.
Lesions of parietal lobe
Contralateral insensitivity to touch, disruption of movement, tactile agnosia, impaired spatial orientation, face recognition, apraxia (inability to execute purposeful movement despite normal motor functioning), collateral neglect (loss of interest of one side of body), asomatognosia (inability to recognize own body parts), agraphia (read or write)
Gertzmann's Syndrome
Left partiental lobe lesions: agraphia, acalculia, left-right disorientation, and finger agnosia
Occipital Lobe
Visual cortex, collateral blindness, distortion of images, blind spots, persistent after-images, loss of depth perception, visual agnosia (inability to recog by sight)
Lateralization of Function
Hemispheric lateralization
Evidence by Sperry's split brain research, EEG,

Some dominance but both active most of time
Left hemisphere
Left: Rational, analytical, sequencing, logical, written and spoken language

Left damage: depression and anxiety
Right Hemisphere
Right: artistic and musical, understanding spatial relationships, expression of emotion, facial recognition, creativity

Right damage: apathy and indifference, temporary exag emot response
Extrapyramidal System
Motor movement: smoothness, initiation, termination, directness.
Cerebellum, basal ganglia, substantia nigra
Assoc with Huntington's and Parkinson's
Huntington's Disease
Genetic, cognitive deterioration as well as abnormalities in movement
Degeneration on substantia nigra, basal ganglia, and cortex
Assoc NTS: ACh, glutamate, GABA, and dopamine
Parkinson's Disease
Tremors and disturbance in voluntary movement
Degeneration of dopamine producing cells in substantia nigra
Pyramidal System
Mediates fine, intricate movements of speed and strength
From motor cortex to brain stem and spinal cord
Striatum
Produce GABA, muscular activities walking and balance
Caudate nucleus and putamen
ADHD, Huntingtons (decreased GABA and increased dopamine)
Wernicke's aphasia
Speaks well and but doesn't make sense
Relay station for all sensory info except olfaction
thalamus
Tactile agnosia due to damage of
Parietal lobe
Cerebellum is involved in
posture and balance
Temporal is to occipital as
Hearing is to vision
What is least developed at birth
Cerebral cortex
Damage to temporal lobe can cause
Problems with memory
Memory consolidation is mediated by
Hippocampus
Physiological Psychology
Hunger, alertness, emotions, eating, sleeping, aggression
Emotion: Freud
Emot tied to early physio drives - hunger and need to escape pain
Universal and under unconscious control
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Occur when experience autonomic arousal and interpret as emot state
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Stimulate cortex and thalamus produce sympathetic NS arousal and emot feeling
All emot are equal in physio arousal
Physio accompanies feeling not causes it
Cognitive-Arousal Theory of Emotion
Schacter and Singer
Emot related to physio arousal and cog attributions for that arousal.
Sensations are similar but attrib makes emot different (env cues)
Epinephrine study
Universal Emotions
1860 Darwin
6 basic emotions: fear, anger, joy, sadness, surprise, and disgust
Brain Mechanisms in Hunger
Hypothalamus: Metabolic, neural, and hormonal to mediated intake/uptake of energy
Hindbrain: Signals from GI to Hypothalamus
Limbic: Amydala: Emotions - reward and pleasure
Obesity
25-40% genetic: resting metabolic rate, body fat distribution, and set point (bw metab and hunger)
Follow external cues to eat rather than internal
More likely to eat in times of stress
61% overweight and 27% obese due to lifestyle
Sex Hormones
Hypo stim pit releases luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. LH stimulate gonads to produce androgens and estrogen. FSH cause release of sperm and ova.
Androgens
Testosterone: Sexual interest and appetite and dev sex characteristics in males
Estrogen
Sexual devel and health funct of reproductive system
Progesterone
Healthy funct of reproductive system and during pregnancy for funct of placenta
Sex hormones and menopause
Reduction of 3
Estrogen: hot flashes, insomnia, mood swings, urinary incontinence, and vaginal changes, increased risk of osteoporosis and heart disease, loss of sex drive
Estrogen replacement therapy or Hormone replacement therapy
Reduce risk of osteoporosis and heart disease
Increase risk of breast cancer and other side effects
Female Sexual Bx
Experience plays a role
Loss of androgen = decreased libido
Male Sexual Bx
Castration: Decling in libido and potency
Hypogonadism: elevated testosterone, replacement tx
Spinal cord injuries may not interfere with erections but with ejaculation
Sleep
Restorative, Holdover from hibernation
Sleep switch in hypothalamus
The Sleep Cycle
5 stages, 4 slow way NREM, 5th REM,
Alpha (relaxed) and beta (alert) waves during day
Stage 1: Transition bw wake and sleep - alpha disappear, and theta appear. Muscles relax and heart rate slows
Stage 2: Theta waves
Stage 3: Slow delta
Stage 4: Slow delta, deep sleep
Stage 5: Similar to awake
The Sleep Cycle
Cycle is avg 100 minutes 4-6 times a night. REM is 10-50 min (increases through night)
Dreams: Non/REM in REM more vivid, and more remembered
Age and sleep
REM decreases with age
Infancy begin with REM
Sleep less
REM Deprivation
Adverse effect on cognitive functioning and anxiety irritability
not personality or serious maladjustment
REM Rebound: more time in REM
Sleep Disorders
Insomia: less delta, underestimate time sleeping
Nightmare disorder: During REM
Sleep Terror Dx and Sleep walking in stage 4.
Memory
Temporal Lobe: Long term
Hippo: Memory consolidation
Prefrontal cortex: Short-term, working memory
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Memory Dx, alcoholics with thiamine deficiency, lesions in hypo/thalamus
Retro/anterograde amnesia, confabulation, and apathy
Long term potentiation
Long-term memory: Increased sensitivity of neurons and changes in shape of synapses in hippo
Memory and RNA
Increased production of RNA
Training or experience produce different kinds of RNA
Man paralyzed waist down would likely be able to
attain erection and not ejaculate
Alpha waves occur mostly during
States relaxed wakefulness
Sleep and aging
Sleep and non-REM more than REM
RNA plays role in
memory
what is one of the universal emotions
surprise
Endocrine System
Ductless glands which secrete hormones that travel through the blood that influence the functioning of organs
Pituitary Gland
Hypo - Pit
Master gland that secretes hormones that act directly on organs and causes other glands to secrete hormones
2 Hormones released by pituitary
Growth Hormone (GH) aka somatotropic - acts on epiphyseal plates on ends of bones in children and adol not adults. Over - giantism and under - dwarfism. In adulthood -acromegaly - enlarged hands, feet, face
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): inhibit urination when fluid needed - Undersecretion produces diabetes insipidus or excessive water loss
Adrenal Cortex
Secretes cortisol that converts energy to glucose - released by ACTH
Undersecretion of ACTH leads to Addison Disease (fatigue, fainting, loss of appetite, decreased body weight, depression, and apathy)
Oversecretion results Cushing disease: obesity, memory loss, mood swings, depression, and somatic delusions
Cortisol & Stress
Impacts with chronic high levels and body is unable to return to homeostasis
Relaxation and biofeedback help to restore
Gonads
Hypo release gonadotropic releasing hormone to pit where control release of LH and FSH which control release of sex hormones by gonads
Male & femal gonads
Testes secrete steroids called androgens (testosterone).
Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone
Control reproduction and sex characteristics
Dysfunction of gonads
Androgen failure during development fail to develop normal male genitalia or female exposed to androgen early may develop male organs
Low level in males lower sexual potency
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxin controls metabolism, rate body burns calories
Cretinism: early deficiency results in maldevelopment and intellectual impairment
Hypothyroidism: slowed metabolism, reduce appetite, weight gain, lowered heart rate and body temp, decreased sex drive, depression, and deficits in cognition (memory/concentration)
Hyperthyroidism: Elevated body temp, increased metabolic rate, weight loss, increased appetite, accelerated heart rate, nervousness, agitation, fatigue, insomnia, mania, decreased attention span
Pancreas
Insulin: absorption phase in metabolism of glucose and amino acids
Diabetes mellitus: inability to produce insulin - inject of insulin - untreated high blood glucose leve, mineral loss, low blood pressure, reduced blood flow, death
Hypoglycemia: Over insulin - hunger , dizziness, HA, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion
4 Types of sensory receptors
1. Photo: vision
2. Chemo: Taste and smell
3. Mechano: movement and hearing
4. Thermo: temp and hot/cold
Anatomy of Eye
Light - Cornea (transparent covering) - Pupil (opening in iris) regulates light, Lens focuses light on retina - Retina light sensitive
Reception
Rods: Low levels of light
Cones: Colors during day
Cones cluster in focea - maximum visual acuity
Optic nerve from retina to brain
Nerves stay on same side and cross to oppos side of brain
Brain to thalamus the to occipital lobe
Anatomy of the Ear
Vibration to auditory canal to ear drum sound waves amplified by 3 bones (ossicles) and transmitted to oval window - pressure on the liquid in cochlea (inner ear) leads to movement of hair cells (aud receptors) transform chem to neural to aud nerve to thalamus and to aud cortex in temporal lobe
60% cross
Principles in Coding
Sound waves vary in frequency (pitch), amplitude (loudness), and overtones (timbre).
Hertz: frequencies of cycles/second
Loudness meas in decibels - Pain 120 db
Aud localization
Determine direction of sound present at birth, disappears, declines 1-4 months, reemerge 4-5 mo, fully devel 12 mo
Somethesis
Touch, pain, body position (kinesthesia), temp
Pain
Depends on person
Associated with depression
Alcohol dependence
Large myelinated fibers inhibits pain
Closing the gate - massaging, distraction, heat cold application
Narcotic analgesics bind to receptors to block pain
Olfaction
Most primitive of senses and does not run through thalamus
Not crossed in brain
Receptors line rear part of nose and goes through limbic to brain
Taste
Sweet sour salty and bitter
affected by smell and strongest in infancy
Psychophysics
Study of relat bw the magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations
fechner: Absolute threshold - lowest threshold to experience. Difference threshold (JND) smallest physical diff that is recognized
Fechner's Law: JND Internal and physical stimuli change equally
Stephen's Law: Relat bw magnitude of physical stimuli and internal sensations, vary with diff kinds of stim
Pain can be cause by
unacknowledged depression
Gate control theory
same stimul doesnt always cause the same level of pain bc pain can be blocked
Which sense is lowest on phylogentic scale (means oldest and most primitive)
Smell
Structural brain imaging techniques: CAT/CT scan
CAT or CT Scan: X-ray; density of brain tissue, tumors, blood clots, tissue damage, MS. Detects blood in and around brain, makes sure damage is not spreading, less costly than MRI
Structural brain imaging techniques: MRI
MRI: magnetic fields 3d image, CNS, tumors, strokes, degen disease, inflammation, infection, abnorm in organs and soft tissue.
Functional Techniques: Pet Scan
Structure and function of brain uses radioactive material , measures regional cerebral blood flow, glucose metab, oxygen consumption. Mapping distrib of NTS, and id brain dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, dementia, nerve tearing and other brain impair
SPECT and fMRI
Aphasia
Disturbance in language production and/or comprehension.
Broca's and Wernicke's and conduction
Dysarthria: prob in articulation and due to lesions that are in control of speech, mistaken for aphasia by Park, Hunt, and MS
Alexia
Reading disability
Apraxia
Inability to learn or perform complex purposeful movements despite normal muscle strength and coordination - unable to recall how to do it
Ideomotor: Cannot carry out a command to perform but able to perform spontaneously
Constructional: cannot draw or copy or arrange blocks
Agnosia
Inability to recognize familiar objects - tactile, auditory, visual.
Aperceptive: cannot recog by sight but can by touch.
Associative: Cannot name but know how it functions and can match it
Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize familiar faces
Anosognosia
Inability to unwillingness to recog own functional impairment
Right brain damage with left side paralysis have this
Brain Tumors
Depends on location. Children develop more on brainstem cerebellum and adults in cortex. Often misdiagnosed as psychiatric bc often starts with depression, anxiety.
Factors that suggest a tumor
1. HA - dull, most common
2. Seizures - partial and adult onset
3. Nausea and vomiting, projectile
4. Changes in vision and hearing
5. localized weakness, sensory loss, paresthesias and ataxia
Alexia
Reading disability
What is a Stroke
Sudden severe interference of blood flow in brain, can result from embolism (clot) or hemorrhage.
Cerebrovascular accident
Apraxia
Inability to learn or perform complex purposeful movements despite normal muscle strength and coordination - unable to recall how to do it
Ideomotor: Cannot carry out a command to perform but able to perform spontaneously
Constructional: cannot draw or copy or arrange blocks
Damages caused by middle cerebral artery stroke
Contralateral hemiplegia, sensory loss, face and arm, dementia, contralat vision loss
Agnosia
Inability to recognize familiar objects - tactile, auditory, visual.
Aperceptive: cannot recog by sight but can by touch.
Associative: Cannot name but know how it functions and can match it
Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize familiar faces
Stroke statistics
50% die w/in 6mo of stroke
10% full recovery
Greatest improvement 6 mo
Physical improve better than cog
Anosognosia
Inability to unwillingness to recog own functional impairment
Right brain damage with left side paralysis have this
Common stroke impairment
Impaired circulation of cerebrospinal fliud, hydrocephalus w/ csf in ventricles, sx of dementia, dist in gait, urinary incont
Brain Tumors
Depends on location. Children develop more on brainstem cerebellum and adults in cortex. Often misdiagnosed as psychiatric bc often starts with depression, anxiety.
Factors that suggest a tumor
1. HA - dull, most common
2. Seizures - partial and adult onset
3. Nausea and vomiting, projectile
4. Changes in vision and hearing
5. localized weakness, sensory loss, paresthesias and ataxia
What is a Stroke
Sudden severe interference of blood flow in brain, can result from embolism (clot) or hemorrhage.
Cerebrovascular accident
Damages caused by middle cerebral artery stroke
Contralateral hemiplegia, sensory loss, face and arm, dementia, contralat vision loss
Stroke statistics
50% die w/in 6mo of stroke
10% full recovery
Greatest improvement 6 mo
Physical improve better than cog
Common stroke impairment
Impaired circulation of cerebrospinal fliud, hydrocephalus w/ csf in ventricles, sx of dementia, dist in gait, urinary incont
Head Trauma: 2 Types
Most common cause of brain damage under 40 y/o
Open: skull is penetrated, focal, and resolves quickly
Closed: widespread period of loss of consciousness, amnesia, anterograde is best predictor of injury and recovery. Other somatic, emot, and cog problems. Some recover in 6-9 months.
Postconcussional disorder
follows head trauma and 3 more sx for 3 mo (HA, dizzy, fatigue, irritability, agg, dep, anx)
Huntington's Chorea
Cog deterioration, pers and affect changes, and movement abnorm.
Avg age 30-50 but may be 2-60
Autosomal degenerative disease affects 50% of offsping of affected
Huntington's Chorea Sxs
Early sx are affective (dep, anx), then cog (forget) and pers, then motor (clumsy, uncoord, figet).
Later Athetosis (slow writhing) and chorea (rapid jery), tics, distorted speech.
Dementia
Suicide risk is high when young
Huntington's Chorea Etio
Substantia nigra, basal ganglia, and cortex

NTS: glutamate, ACh, GABA, and dopamine
Parkinson's Disease Sxs
Degen brain dis w/ abnorm in movement
Sx: Tremor, muscle rigid, invol movement (restless), disturb posture and equilibrium, akinesia (slow movement, blank expression, emotionless speech)
Comorbid with dep (low serotonin) and dementia
Parkinson's Disease Etio and TX
Degen of dopamine producing cells in substantia nigra which effects basal ganglia, thalamus, and cortex
Alleviated by L-dopa and other that increase da levels in brain
CT and MRI useful for
Dx a brain tumor
PET and FMRI: Map NTS, Meas cerebral blood flow
Huntington's Chorea misdx with
affective dx - early signs are affective
Prognosis of Head injury best predictor is
duration of antergrade amnesia
Antidepressants
Usually take 2-3 wks to effect
TCAs, SSRIs, MAOIs, newer : SSNRIs, serotonin-2 antagonist and reuptake inhibitors, tetracyclics, and norepinephrine dopamine reuptake inhibitor
Tricyclics (TCAs): Types
Tofranil: imipramine
Elavil: amitriptyline
Anafranil - clomipramine
TCAs: Targets
Block reuptake of serotonin and norephinphrine at synapse.
Relieve vegetative sx of depression, ocd, bulimia, chronic pain, enuresis
TCAs side effects (SE)
Dry mouth, constip, urinary retention, blurred vision, nasal congest - common
GI, impaired sexual funct, skin rash, sedation, memory impair, confusion, insomnia
Most serious: cardio (tachy, palpitations, changes in BP.
TCA Lethal SE
Severe hypotension, fever, delirium, seizure, coma, sudden death due to cardiac arrhythmia,
Lower SE = lower dose
Combining w/MAOI = severe convulsions, hypertensive crisis, and death
SSRIs: 3 Types
Prozac - Fluoxetine
Zoloft - Sertraline
Paxil - Paroxetine
SSRIs Used for tx of:
Depression, anxiety, ocd, binge eating, panic
SSRI: How it works
Increase serotonin at synapse by blocking reuptake
SSRI: Side Effects
GI, loss of appetite, decreased libido, other sexual dys, HA, worsen sleep and increase anx in early tx stages, akathesia, eps sx.
When combined with TCA or MAOI, anticonvulsant, or antipsychotic can cause serious problems (serotonin syndrome).
SSRI: Risks
Concern with worsen bx, depression, suicide
2004, FDA black label for risk of suicide with children and adol
Fluox (prozac) only approved for children 8+
MAOIs: How it works
Blocks enzyme break down of NE and Serotonin at synapse
MAOIs: Types
Phenelzine (Nardil)
Tranylcypromine (Parnate)
MAOis: Treat these disorders
Atypical dep: increased appetite, hypersomnia, rejection sensitivity, mood reactivity, sx increase as day progresses, and accom sx of phobic anx, panic, and hypochondriasis
MAOIs: SE
Hypotension, dizzy, dry mouth, upet stomach, wt gain, blurred vision, and HA
MAOIs: Hypertensive crisis
Fatal
Elevated bp and convulsions occurs when taken with certain drugs or foods high in amino acid tyramine Such as beer, wine, aged cheese, beef or chicken liver, smoked meat, packaged soup, soy sauce, spinach, sour cream, avocados, bananas, plums, raisins, eggplant, tomatoes, and yogurt
MAOIs: Overdose
Drowsy, agitation, hypertension, tachycardia, hall/del, seiz, coma

Large od is fatal (10 day supply)
SSNRIs Types
Venlafaxine (Effexor) and Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
SSNRIs Tx
MD, GAD, SA, Panic
SSNRIs SE
abnormal dreas, agitation, sexual dys, GI, bp changes, drowsy, tingling, trembling
Serotonin-2 Antagonist and Reuptake Inhibitors: Types and SE
Nefazadone (Serzone): Blurred vision and somnolence (treat insomnia)

Trazodone (Desyrel): tx impotence and may cause orthostatis hypotension, priapism
Tetracyclic: How it works
Increases NE and Serotonin in brain

Does not cause sex dys, effective for tx, dep w/ anx, sleep problems, and chronic neurgenic pain
Tetracyclic: 2 Types
Mirtazipine (Remeron): NE and Selective Serotonin Antidep (NaSSA) acts like antihistamine similar to benadry (diphenhydramine)
Maprotiline (Ludiomil)
Tetracyclic: SE
Sedation, skin rash, blurred vision, dry mouth, dizzy, agit, et gain
NE DA reuptake inhibitor: Type, SE, and Tx
Buproprion (Wellbutrin, Zyban): dep, smoking cess, off label for ADHD distract

SE: abdominal pain, constip, decrease in appet, dizzi, dry mouth, increased sweating, nausea, trembling, diff sleep, unusual dreams, and induce pre-exist seiz or psychosis
NRI: NE Reuptake Inhibitor
Reboxetine (Edronax)
Atomoxetine (Stattera): only non-stimulant indicated for ADHD and off label for anx
Mood Stabilizers: Lithium: How it works and tx
Unclear but may reduce postsynaptic responsivity to DA and NE
Bipolar, scz, intermittent explosive, epilepsy, and episodic binge drinking
Bipolar: Lower levels of mania and levels out mood swings
Lithium: SE
Most common: Gastric distress, wt gain, tremor (35% finger), fatigue, mild cog impairment (confusion disorien)

Lithium toxicity: vomit, ab pain, diarrhea, tremor, ataxia, lead to seiz, coma, death

Lithium levels must be monitored
Mood Stabilizers: Anticonvulsants: Tegretol and Depakote
Believed to affect serotonin

Carbamazapine dysphoric mania, and rapid cycling: faster onset

SE: Lethargy, tremor, ataxia, and visual disturb - agranulocytosis (decrease wbc)

Valproic acid: fewer SE
Antipsychotics: How it works
Traditional: Block DA
Atypical: Block DA, Serotonin, and Glutamate
Traditional Antipsychotics: Types
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), haloperidol (Haldol), thioridazine (Mellaril), and Fluphenazine (prolixin, permitil)
Traditional Antipsychotics: Tx
Scz, mania, and other dx with psychotic sx

Scz: alleviate positive sx
Atypical Antipsychotics: Types
Clozapine (Clozaril), risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine, (Zyprexa), and ariprazole (Abilify)
Atypical Antipsychotics: Tx
Scz, and dx with psychotic sx
Clozapine effected for Parkinson's and Huntington's
Atypical Antipsychotics: How they work
Slow onset but alleviate pos and neg sx, effective for pt that do not respond to traditional
Traditional Antipsychotics: SE
Anticholingeric: Dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, gastric distress

EPS: Parkinsonism (muscle stiffness, shuffling gait, stooped posture, slurred speech, masklike facial expression), akathesia (restless, muscular discomfort), and dystonia (sustained muscle contraction, or spasms resulting in involuntary movements
Tardive dyskinesia: abnorm invol movements, face tongue, jaw, facial grimacing and chewing - can be alleviated in young pt by w/d meds - 6 mo after tx
Atypical Antipsychotics: SE
Not assoc w/ TD or EPS
Agranulocytosis, assoc w/ higher rate of seiz
Anticholinergic, sedation, hypotension
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Following use of any antipsychotic

Muscular rigidity, high fever, sweating, stupor, unstable bp, alter mental states, and autonomic dysfunction - usually during 1st 2 wks of tx - discont. meds
Benzodiazepines Types
Most widely rx anxiolytic
Diazepam (valium), alprazolam (xanax), clonazepam (klonopin), lorazepam (ativan), and triazolam (halcion).
BZD: How they work and tx
Enhance GABA, inhibit CNS
TX: anx, gad or panic, insomnia, severe alcohol w/d, cerebral palsy, and petit mal epilepsy
BZD: SE
Drowsy, sedation - common
Wt gain, apathy, dry mouth, GI, paradoxical excitation, motor dist (ataxia and incoord), sex dysf
Valium or ativan injected: anterograde amnesia
Elderly: disorient and confusion
BZD: Addiction
W/D sx: irrit, anx, agit, insomn, tremor, ab cramps, vomiting, sweating, flu-like sx
Severe: seiz, stroke, panic, and rebound hyperexcitability
Fatal: Mix with alcohol or CNS depressant
Barbituates: Types
Thiopental (pentothal), amobarbital (amytal), and secobarbital (seconal)
Barbituates: How they work and tx
Interrupt impulses in reticular activating system
Thio: gen anesthetic
Amo: acute management of agitated pt.
Barbituates: addiction
Fatally suppress respiration
w/ alcohol: potentiating effect on brain that controls breathing
Azapirones - Busipirone (BuSpar)
Reduce anx w/o sedative effect, anticonvulsant, or muscle relaxant effects

SE: dizzy, HA, nausea, nervous, lighthead, excitement

Work: Enhance DA and NE and reduce serotonin and ACh

Slow onset, not addictive
Betablockers: Propranolol (Inderal)
Reduce heart rate, palpitations, tremors, sweating, hypervent, and SNS activity

Tx: Performance anx, hypertens, cardiac arrhyth, migraine, and essential tremor

SE: bradycard, hypotens, sex dysf, fatigue, paresthesia, dep, mem impair

W/D: sweating palp, HA, tremor
Psychostimulants: How they work
Innervate CNS by mimicking or potentiating the action of catecholamines (NE and DA) in the brain.
Psychostimulants: Types
Cocain, amphetamines, Methylphenidate (Ritalin), and pemoline (cylert - narcolepsy)
Psychostimulants: Sx treated
decrease motor activity, diminish impulsiveness, increase vigilance, attention
Psychostimulants: SE
decreased appetite, insomnia, stomach ache, dysphoria (anx, euphoria, irrit, sadness - 50% of kids), ocd sx, growth suppression (drug holidays), increase tics, od - psychosis
Narcotic-Analgesics: Types
Natural opiods (opium, morphine, codeine) or synthetic (heroin, percodan, demerol, and methadone/
Narcotic-Analgesics: Use
Drugs of abuse, pre-op sedative, tx acute pain, chronic pain from cancer
Narcotic-Analgesics: How it works
Bind to enkephalin receptors and block transmission of neural impulses
Narcotic-Analgesics: SE
Pupil constriction, decreased visual acuity, perspiration, GI, respiratory depression

OD: decrease pulse rate, convulsions, coma, death
Narcotic-Analgesics: Addiction
methadone: Substitute for heroin, as addicting, w/d milder, last longer, oral
Narcotic-analgesics: Substitute drug tx
Buprenophrine (Subutex)
Suboxone (buprenophrine/naloxone combo)
Both FDA approved for tx and are opioid agonists.
Effects: Euphoria, respiratory depression
Reduce w/d, cause nausea, vomiting, constip
Women with tardive dyskinesia, drug is gradually w/d, sxs will:
Increase temp, then begin to decline in younger adults
Common side effect of lithium
Fine hand tremor, mostly fingers 35%
Pharm tx for OCD is usually
antidepressants (clomopramine and fluoxetine)
Frequent SE of BZD in elderly
confusion and disorientation
In comparison to TCAs, SSRIs are
less lethal in OD
What antidepressant is least likely to cause cog impair
Fluoxetine (SSRI)
Regulation of emot is a function of the
limbic system
NTS most assoc w/ dep
NE
Right Hemis is dominant for
Visual-spatial skills - R brain creativity, communication and comprehension of emot, facial recog

language and logical thinking on Left
What is being targeted in biofeedback
Parasymp NS - relax recup
Man w/ brain tumor, can't recog familiar faces, diffic getting dressed, problems deciphering visual-spatial info, and denies problem are suggestive of damage to the
Parietal Lobe
Long-term potentiation is assoc w
learning and memory
Son had fall hit head, diff with motor coord. Part of brain injured:
Cerebellum
As tx for scz, neuroleptics are
most effective for positive sx
Dep, irrit, impuls, forgetful, clumsy, prob with fine motor are early sx of
Huntington's chorea
NTS assoc with vol movement
ACh
Pt exhibits cold intolerance, muscle aches and pains, slowness of speech impaired memory, confusion, depression
Hypothyroidism
ACh
NTS mediates memory, neurmuscular transmission, and parasympathetic arousal
Alz: Loss
Park: Excess
Age and sleep
Vary, increasing age total sleep time, stage 4 and REM decrease
Agnosia
Inability to recog familiar stimuli
Akathesia
Uncomfortable feeling of motor restlessness
Akinesia
Slowness or loss of movement (brady), masklike facial expression, and emotionless speech
All or none law
Bio law governing action potential - fire with minimim level of stim - beyond that does not effect speed or size
Alpha Waves
Patterns of brain activity assoc with relaxed wakefulness
Amygdala
Limbic: control of emot activities, attachment of emot to sensory stim, fear condit, learning about reward and pun
Androgens
Male sex hormones
Testosterone and androstenedione
Anhedonia
Lack of reaction to pleasure producing stim; inabil to exp pleas sensations
Anosognosia
Inability, unwill, to recog own others funct impair
Anticholinergic effect
SE of TCA
Dry mouth, constip, urinary retent, blurred vision, nasal congestion
Antipsychotics
Tx pos sx of scz
Thorazine, mellaril, haldol,
SE: Anticholinergic and EPS
AKA neuroleptics
Aphasia
Deficit or inability to use or understand spoken, symbolic, or written language
Apraxia
Inability to execute purposeful or org movements despite normal strength and coord - Damage to frontal or parietal lobes
Arrhythmia
Abnorm rhythm or rate of heart beat due to funct or org causes
Ataxia
Slurred speech, severe tremors, loss of balance
Atypical antipsychotics
Tx pos and neg sx of scz
Clozapine, risperidone, affect DA, serotonin, and glutamate
Less likely to produce Tardive Dyskinesia
Auditory Localization
Orient toward direction of sound, fully devel 12 mo
Autonomic NS
Division of peripheral NS in control of smooth muscles and glands.
2 divisions: para (restoration and recup)/sympathetic (expend energy)
Barbituates
CNS depressants rarely used due to addictive and dangerous potential
Basal Ganglia
Midbrain involved in muscle tone and motor coord and posture part of EPS
Beta-blockers
Reduce receptivity of beta-adrenergic neurons, innervate cardiac and respiratory systems - used as anxio
BZD
Anxio - Xanax, valium. ativan
Brain Imaging Techniques
Structural Imaging: CT and MRI - id tumors, blood clots, abnorm
Functional: PET, fMRI and Spect - neural activity, cerebral blood flow (neuroimaging)
Brain tumor
Sx depend on location. Sx HA, seiz, focal neuro signs
Broca's aphasia
Slow, laborious, nonfluent speech
Catecholamine Hypothesis
Dep is due to deficiency of NE
Cerebellum
Coord movements and well learned fine movements
Cerebral stroke
Blood clot, obstruction, hemorrhage disrupting blood flow to brain - damage
SXs: hemianesthesia of face, arm, leg , contralateral hemiplegia and contralateral visual field loss
Cerebral ventricles
4 cavities that contain cerebrospinal fluid
Hydrocephalus: blockage of ventricles and build up of fluid
Chorea
Uncontrollable and irregular muscle movements arms, legs, and face
Closed head injury
Followed by a period of loss of consciousness - recovery anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia, other cog sx and changes in bx and motor abilities.
Best predictor: duration of anterograde amnesia
Conduction aphasia
result of damage to nerve fibers bw broca's and wernicke's
Speak and comprehend diffic repeating what was heard
Contralateral representation
Cortex for most all sensory and motor funct
Corpus callosum if split each side funct indep
Corpus callosum
nerve fibers that connect left and right hemis
Dopamine
Motiv/emot/inhibitory motor regulation
Excessive: Ocd and scz
Insufficient: park in the basal ganglia
Dopamine Hypothesis
scz is due to overact of DA
Emotion regulation
Amydala, hypothalamus, and cortex assoc emo regulation.
Amydala: perception and expression of emot
Hyp: translate emo to physical resp - left = happy and right - sad and fear
Estrogen
Female sex hormone, secondary sex charact, reduced menopause
Externality Hypothesis
Obese tend to eat bc of external cues more than hunger cues
EPS
Drug effects on EPS: Parkinsonism (muscle stiffness, shuffling gait, stooped posture, slurred speech, masklike facial expression), Akathesia (muscular discomfort/restlessness), Dystonia (sustained muscle contraction or spasms resulting in involuntary movment), Tardive Dyskinesia (abnormal slow involuntary movements of face tongue jaw like facial grimacing and chewing
Frontal lobe
Lobe of the cerebral hemisphere that controls the motor cortex and in involved in expressive language, motiv, pers funct
Frontal lobe personality
Damage: depressive pers (apathy, lack of drive, little verbal output, and inability to plan and focus attention)
GABA
Most abundant NTS. Has an inhibitory role, esp limbic system (anx, seiz, sleep). Low level assoc with anx and deficits of GABA in motor regions assoc with Huntingtons Chorea (dementia and involuntary jerky movements in arms and legs)
Gate-Control Theory
Pain impulses can be blocked by competing impulses going to and coming from brain
Glutamate
NTS assoc w/cog funct, learning and memory
Hippocampus
In Limbic, trans info from short to long term memory
Huntington's Chorea
Inherited degen dx w/cog decline, affective, and bx changes, and movement abnorm (athetosis and chorea)
Estrogen
Female sex hormone, secondary sex charact, reduced menopause
Externality Hypothesis
Obese tend to eat bc of external cues more than hunger cues
EPS
Drug effects on EPS: Parkinsonism (muscle stiffness, shuffling gait, stooped posture, slurred speech, masklike facial expression), Akathesia (muscular discomfort/restlessness), Dystonia (sustained muscle contraction or spasms resulting in involuntary movment), Tardive Dyskinesia (abnormal slow involuntary movements of face tongue jaw like facial grimacing and chewing
Frontal lobe
Lobe of the cerebral hemisphere that controls the motor cortex and in involved in expressive language, motiv, pers funct
Frontal lobe personality
Damage: depressive pers (apathy, lack of drive, little verbal output, and inability to plan and focus attention)
GABA
Most abundant - Inhibitory (esp in Limbic - controls emot, anx, sleep, seiz).
Low: anx and deficits in motor region assoc with Hunt Chorea (dement and jerky arms and legs)
Gate-control theory
Pain impulses blocked by competing impulses
Glutamate
Cog funct, learning and memory
Hippocampus
Limbic: transferring info from short-long term memory
Huntington's Chorea
Inherited degen dx w/ cog decline, affective, bx changes, and movement abnorm (athetosis and chorea)
Hydrocephalus
Excessive CSF in ventricles - congenital or acquired
Hypertension
Elevated BP primary (unknown cause) or secondary (cause known). Primary 85-90%. Cardiovascular disease, heart failre, kidney failure, and stroke
Hyperthyroidism
Oversecretion of thyroxin
Sx: speed up metab, wt loss, irrit, nervous, insomnia
Hypoglycemia
Low level of glucose - diabetes, liver disease, insulinoma (pancreatic tumor produce insulin), other dx, certain drug.
Sx: HA, dizzy, sweat, impaired concent, confusion, clumsy, jerky movement, weakness, convusions, loss of consciousness
Hypothalamus
Reg homestasis and motiv bx feeding, drinking, sex, aggr, maternal bx
Hypothyroidism
Under-thyroxin
Sx: slowed metab, wt gain, cog impair, depression
"Just noticeable difference" JND
Smallest physical diff bw 2 stimuli that is recog as a diff. Diff threshold.
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Memory dx (alcoholics) Thiamine (Vit B) deficiency. LEsions in mammillary bodies (hypothalamus) and thalamus. Retrograde and antergrade amnesia, confab, apathy
Lateralization of function
L-R hemis have diff funct - still share many funct
L - language dominant (word recog, speech, writing), analytical, logical thought, positive emot states
R - Visual-spatial skills (spatial interp, face recog, memory for shapes) and neg emot states.
Limbic System
Mid-lower brain involved in emot and motiv
Amygdala, septum, and hippocampus
Lithium
Mood stabilier for Bipolar
Long-term potentiation
Changes in structure of synapses following high freq stimulation. Hippocampus, esp at Glutamate receptors, and believed to be resp for long-term memory
MAOIs
Antidep - impair enzyme (monoamine oxidase) that degrades NE. Not taken w/ food that contain Tyramine due to hypertensive crisis
Medulla
Hindbrain - mediation of vital autonomic activities - heart rate, BP, respiration
Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
CNS stimulant for ADHD. Reduces overactivity and impulsivity and increases attention span.
SE: decreased appetite, insomnia, dysphoria, and growth suppression
Narcotic-analgesics
Opiods - sedative and analgesic (cough suppressants and tx diarhhea)
Tol and depend (phys and psych)
Neuroleptic-malignant syndrome
Rare SE: rapid, mental, motor, autonomic sx and fatal. Drug discont.
SX: muscle rigid, tachycardia, hyperthermia, altered consciousness, seiz, loss of bladder control
Neurogenesis
New brain neurons added in maturity - ID in olfactory system, hippocampus, cortex (prefrontal, inferior, temporal, posterior)
NTS
Chemical released by neuron - excite or inhib.
NE, DA, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, ACh
NE
NTS sympathetic NS and involved in reg sleep, eating, pos rein. Dep linked with NE deficiency
Occipital Lobe
Contains visual cortex
Damage: visual object agnosia, color agnosia, word blindness, scotomas (blind spots)
Opiod W/D Syndrome
Ab cramps, nausea, vomiting, sweating, tearing eyes, runny nose, diarrhea, weakness, dilated pupils, goose bumps, muscle twitching, aches, pains, anx, insom, increased pulse, increased resp rate, elevated bp.
Paresthesia
Burning, tickling, itching, tingling, pins and needles
Parietal lobe
Somatosensory cortex - sensation of pain, temp, kinesthesia - coord w/ visual and other sensory stimuli.
Damage: Apraxia, contralateral neglect, L-R orientation diffic, inability to recog objects by touch, Gertsmann Syndrome
Parkinson's Disease
Degen brain dx - tremor, akathesia, disturb in posture, equilibrium, muscle rigidity, akinesia. Degen of DA containing cells, in substantia nigra,
L-Dopa temp relieve sx
Perserverating
Uncontrollable repetition of a certain response - frontal lobe damage
Prefrontal cortex
anterior - divided lateral, orbitofrontal, and medial prefrontal. Planning complex bx, personality expression, moderating correct social bx, short-term memory, episodic memory, prospective memory
Prosopagnosia
Inability to recog familiar faces
Psychopathic syndrome
Damage to frontal lobe - sex disinhib, coarse language, peculiar and facetious humor, inappr social bx, lack of concern for others
Psychophysical Laws
Describe relat bx perception and sensation.
Weber's Law: JND proportional to original stimulus intensity.
Fechner's Law: JND psych equal and changes in physical stim related to psych sensations.
Steven's power law: rel bw physical and internal sensation, vary for diff stimuli
Rebound effect
When med is discont - resurg and magnif of sx, feelings or condition
Relaxation response
Resp to meds or relax techn that decreases sympathetic NS resulting in decreased metab, heart rate, BP, rate of breathing, slower brain waves
REM sleep
Cortical arousal, rapid eye movement, dreaming
Reticular activating system
Maintaining waking state, arousal, and selective attention
RNA
Nucleic acide found within neuron, involved in learning and memory
Sedative hypnotics
CNS depressant - barbituates, anxiolytics (BZD), and alcohol.
Low dose: reduce arousal, motor activity
Mod dose: sedation and sleep
High: anethesia, coma, death
SE: drowsy, ataxia, slurred speech
Sudden discont - rebound hyperexcite
Seizures
Sudden change in bx by changes in sensory perception or motor activity due to abnormal firing of neurons
Partial: one side of brain/body can spread and generalize
Generalized: symmetrical and include absence and tonic-clonic seiz
Absence/petit-mal: brief, loss of conscious w/o motor sx
Tonic-clonic/grand mal: tonic (muscles contract and body stiffens) clonic (shaking) post seiz depression or confusion with amnesia of seiz
Serotonin
Assoc with affective dx, ocd, and scz
Inhibit bx and involved in mood, arousal, hunger, sleep, temp, and pain regulation
Serotonin Syndrome
Too much - restless, hal, loss of coord, fast heart beat, rapid changes in BP, increased temp, overactive reflexes, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, coma death
Sex Hormones
Gonads and pit
Ovaries: estrogen progesterone
Testes: androgens (test and androstenedione)
Pit: gonadotropic hormone
Sexual dimorphism
Consistent diff bw male/female in size or shape - size of corpus callosum, hippocampus, SCN
5 Sleep stages
1. Alpha - relaxed and awake (appear)
2. Theta, bursts
3. Slow delta
4. Delta
5. REM
Somatic NS
Control skeletal muscles and related skin receptors
Spinal Cord
Transmits sensory and motor info to and from brain
Damage: paraplegia, quadriplegia, hemiplegia, paresis
SSRIs
Increase serotonin, prozac zoloft, fewer se than tca (less ACh and cog sx)
Sertraline, paroxetine, fluvoxamine.
Tx: anx, binging purging, chronic pain
Stroke
Neuro impair due to sudden interference of blood flow to brain
Synethesia
Rare: creates sensation in another sense - tasting a color
Tachycardia
Rapid heart rate - funct or organic
Tardive Dyskinesia
Abnormal slow, invol movements, face tongue, jaw
Temporal Lobe
Aud cortex, assoc with receptive language, emotion, encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memory
Testosterone
Facilitates copulatory response. male secondary sex charact, affects libido
Theories of emotion
James-Lange: autonomic arousal in resp to env stim then interp arousal as emot
Cannon-Bard: env stim thalamus and cortex producing arousal that accomp emot
Schachter & Singer: cog attrib to arousal
Lazarus: thought precede emot/arousal
Facial feedback theory: facial changes cue brain and provide basis for emotion
Thalamus
Central switching station for sensory info (except olfactory) to cortex and for communication bw regions of the brain
Tricyclics
Block reuptake of NE and serotonin
Effective for somatic, veg sx
SE: drowsy, confusion, wt gain, anticholingeric effects, cardiovascular sx.
Tx: anx dx, refractory pain syndromes, reduce binge/purge in bulimia, adhd, nocturnal enuresis (imipramine), narcolepsy (clomimpramine)
Vegetative SX
Dep sx: appetite disturb, sleep disturb, psychomotor retard
Visual Agnosia
Inability to recog familial obj by sight
Wernicke's aphasia
Damage to Wern area in temporal lobe - diffic in comprehending spoken and written language, anomia or prob recalling words, and fluent speech that is devoid of meaning