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144 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
how are the sensations from rostral parts and caudal parts organized along the primary somatosensory cortex?
caudal parts of the body are located dorsomedially and rostral parts of the body are located on the ventrolateral aspect of the brain
a picture of a person or animal with body parts enlarged or shrunken to represent the amount of neurons supplying/sending signals to/from that part of the body
homunculus
what sensory system deals with pain and temperature?
anteriolateral system
what is the anteriolateral system's function?
sensory to pain and temperature
where do axons carrying pain and temperature information project in the spinal cord?
zone of Lissauer
where do axons carrying mechanoreceptive information project in the spinal cord?
dorsal column
what are the four modalities of the somatosensory system?
1. tactile
2. proprioceptive
3. thermal
4. pain
from the periphery, where do the modalities of somatosensory information enter the CNS?
all into the spinal cord
specifically, where do peripheral motor neurons originate in the CNS?
the ventral horn of the spinal cord
in a somatotopic map of the somatosensory system, how do the neurons going from lateral-->medial on the spinal cord translate to locations on the body?
lateral is more rostral and medial is more caudal
what are the three general anatomical regions of the spinal cord gray matter, and what layers are included in each section?
1. dorsal horn: layers1-5
2. intermediate zone: layers 6,7
3. ventral horn: layers 8,9
what is another name for the dorsal column?
funiculus
from medial to lateral, what are the three divisions of the dorsal column?
1. fasciculus gracilis
2. fasciculus cuneatus
3. zone of Lissauer
what are the three divisions of spinal cord white matter?
1. dorsal column
2. lateral column
3. ventral column
what are the five basic anatomical parts of the somatosensory system, arranged as a serial processor, starting from peripheral to CNS?
1. receptor
2. spinal cord
3. brainstem
4. thalamus
5. cerebral cortex
after pain and temperature sensory infromation enters the zone of Lissauer, where are the axon bodies located?
superficial (layers 1 and 2) and deep (layer 5) layers of the dorsal horn
after mechanoreceptive sensory information enters the dorsal column, where are the axon bodies located?
middle positions (layers 3 and 4) of the dorsal horn
what sensory system transmits mechanoreceptive information?
medial lemniscal system
what is the function of the medial lemniscal system?
to transmit mechanoreceptive information
where do axons for mechanoreceptive information cross the midline?
through the midline of the brain (diencaphalon) to become the medial lemniscal system
what type of fibers transmit mechanoreceptive information?
GSA
what is the pathway of mechanoreceptive information from the periphery to the brain?
1. receptor surface (GSA)
2. cell body in the dorsal root ganglion
3. central branch in the dorsal root
4. axon enters the spinal cord and bifurcates rostrally and caudally in the dorsal column
5. axons synapse in the caudal medulla in the dorsal column nuclei
6. axons cross at the diencephalon to become the medial lemniscal system
7. synapse at the ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus
8. goes through the internal capsule
9. synapses with the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe
in the dorsal column, where does information from the more caudal portions of the body run? more rostral? Where do each of these axons synapse?
- caudal parts of the body: fasciculus gracilis (medial); synapse in the nucleus gracilis
- rostral parts of the body: fasciculus cuneatus (lateral); synapse in the nucleus cuneatus
In the somatosensory system, axons containing positional locations of more rostral and more caudal parts of the body are located medially or laterally depending on the location. comment on the rostral/caudal body versus the medial/lateral axons in the following regions:
- spinal cord
- ventral posteriolateral nucleus
- primary somatosensory cortex
spinal cord
- rostral = lateral
- caudal = medial

ventral posteriolateral nucleus
- rostral = medial
- caudal = lateral

primary somatosensory cortex
- rostral = lateral
- caudal = medial
what is the flow of information of pain/temperature information from the periphery to the CNS?
1. receptors
2. Zone of Lissauer
3. axons cross in the spinal cord to the contralateral side
4. axons course to the anterior position of the lateral column of white matter - the anteriolateral system
5. axons divide into three comopnents: spinoreticular tract, spinotectal tract, and the spinothalmic tract
what are the three divisions of the dorsal column of the anteriolateral system?
1. spinothalamic tract
2. spinoreticular tract
3. spinotectal tract
what is the pathway for information traveling along the spinothalamic tract of the anteriolateral system?
1. axons synapse in the thalamus
2. axons then go synapse in the ventral posteriolateral nucleus
3. axons then synapse in the primary somatosensory cortex
what is the pathway for information traveling along the spinoreticular tract of the anteriolateral system?
1. axons project up to regions of the medulla and pons referred to as the reticular formation
2. project to the intralaminar nuclei in the thalamus
3. project to many different regions of the cerebral cortex
what is the pathway for information traveling along the spinotectal tract of the anteriolateral system?
1. axons project to the mesencephalon
2. project to the superior colliculus in the midbrain
what is the function of the spinothalamic tract of the anteriolateral system?
localizing the site on the body of pan/temperature stimulation
what is the function of the spinoreticular tract of the anteriolateral system?
activation in response to pain/temperature
what is the function of the spinotectal tract of the anteriolateral system?
orientation of head and eyes toward the stimulus
in the retina, what are the five major cell types from the outside-most position (related to the surface of the eyeball) to the inner-most position?
1. photoreceptors
2. horizontal cells
3. bipolar cells
4. amacrine cells
5. retinal ganglion cells
where do retinal ganglion cells project their axons, and what type of neurons are they?
axons form CN II, SSA fibers
what are the two components of photopigment complex
retinal (an aldehyde derived from Vit A) and opsin (a protein)
comment on the "wiring", photosensititivity, and acuity of cones versus rods
cones - feeds into only one ganglion cell, therefore less photosensitive but more acute

rods - one rod feeds into several ganglia, therefore more photosensitivie but less acute
regarding the eye, what is the fovea?
an area where the inner cells of the retina are "pushed aside" so that there is higher visual acuity
what are the three systems for visual information and what is their function?
1. retino-geniculo-striate system: conscious visual perception; "what" and "where"

2. retino-tectal system: reflex eye responses to visual stimuli

3. retino-hypothalamic system: biological rhythms; control of melatonin from the pineal gland
what are are the visual and retinal fields, and how are they positionally related?
visual field - the source of the light
retinal field - where the light projects onto the retina

the light projecting onto the retina is inverted and reversed
what are the two "half-retinas"? what is the pathway of their axons? what information ends up in the left/right optic tract?
nasal - axons cross the midline at the optic chiasm

temporal - axons do not cross the midline at the optic chiasm

left nasal + right temporal = right optic tract
right nasal + left temporal = left optic tract
where do the axons of the optic tracts synapse?
in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. the right lateral geniculate nucleus gets information from the left optic tract and vice-versa.
what is the positional location of the lateral geniculate nucleus?
caudoventral part of the thalamus
what is the pathway of information along the retino-geniculo-striate system from the retinal ganglia to the CNS?
1. CN II
2. nasal - crosses midline at optic chiasm; temporal - does not midline at optic chiasm
3. optic tract
4. lateral geniculate nucleus
5. optic radiations
6. primary visual cortex (aka striate cortex aka Area 17)
7. information mixes through the corpus callosum
what is the anatomical position of the primary visual cortex in humans? In dogs and cats?
- Humans: lateral surface of the occipital lobe

- Dogs and cats: dorsal surface of the occipital lobe near the midline
there are two major pathways that optic radiations pass from the thalamus to other parts of the brain. What are these two pathways, and what systems do they involve?
1. Lateral geniculate nucleus to the primary visual cortex - retino-genicluo-striate system

2. pretectal nucleus to superior colliculus - retino-tectal system
from the primary visual cortex, what two pathways can information travel for higher-level processing, where do they synapse, and what are their respective functions?
1. ventral stream: temporal lobe; object identification; the "what"

2. dorsal stream: parietal lobe; object location; the "where"
what visual system involves the pupillary light reflex, and what is the neural pathway from stimulus to pupillary constriction?
retino-tectal system

1. light into eye
2. optic nerve (SSA fbers)
3. optic tract
4. pretectal nucleus of the midbrain
5. Edinger-Westphal nucleus (GVE fibers)
6. oculomotor nerve
7. ciliary ganglion (behind the eyeball)
8. pupillary sphincter muscle
what visual system involves the CONSENSUAL pupillary light reflex and how does it relate to the pupillary light reflex?
the retino-tectal system is the pathway

the pathway for the consensual pupillary light reflex is the same, except that some axons from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus send axons across the corpus callosum to the other Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which causes pupillary constriction in the other eye.
what is the significance of the fact that the tympanic membrane is much larger than the oval window?
because the intensity of the sound is amplified as the sound moves from a large surface area to a small surface area
membranous structure, filled with endolymph, that resides within the cochlea
scala media
what fluid bathes the outside of the scala media?
perilymph
the dorsal chamber of the inner ear bordered by the cochlea and the scala media
scala vestibuli
the ventral chamber of the inner ear bordered by the cochlea and the scala media
scala tympani
what is the name of the floor of the scala media and what structure lies along this structure?
basilar membrane, has the organ of Corti
what is the basic function of the organ of Corti?
to transduce vibrations into neural signals that will be perceived as sound
in the inner ear, how is sound transduced into neural signals?
1. the section of basilar membrane with the correct resonance frequency vibrates
2. the cilia of the organ of Corti shear against the tectorial membrane
3. the cilia squirt neurtransmitter onto neurons of CN VIII
what are the basic components of the organ of Corti?
- 3 rows of outer hair cells and one row of inner hair cells
- hair cells have cilia on their tips, which are embedded in the tectorial membrane
- supporting cells and preipheral endings of CN VIII neurons lay adjacent to the hair cells
what anatomical feature of the inner ear allows the brain to distinguish the freqency (pitch) of sound?
the basilar membrane is narrow and stiff at the base and wide and floppy at the apex. Any individual section of the basilar membrane will resonante to a specific pitch, causing specific regions of the organ of Corti to be stimulated.

The narrow, stiff basilar membrane at the base is sensitive to high pitch; the wide, floppy basilar membrane at the apex is sensitve to low pitch
the orderly spatial orientation of response to frequency and orderly neural projections from the inner ear is called what?
tonotropic organization
what is the pathway for information for auditory information as it travels from the cochlea to the primary auditory complex?
1. hair cell
2. cell body of a spiral ganglion cell
3. spiral ganglion
4. CN VIII
5. cochlear nuclei in the medulla
6. superior olivary nucleus near the pontomedullary border; some axons cross the midline at the trapezoid body
7. caudal colliculus in the midbrain
8. via the brachium of the inferior colliculus (lateral meniscus), synapse in the medial geniculate nucleus of the diencephalon (thalamus)
9. auditory radiations to the primary auditory complex in the temporal lobe
how do we hear sound in "stereo"?
some of the auditory neurons from the superior olivary nucleus cross the pontomedullary border midline at the trapezoid body and eventually synapse in the contralateral primary auditory complex. There are also many other midline crossings at various parts of the auditory system.
what are the four nuclei in the brain that interpret different sound patterns and what patterns do they recognize?
1. superior olivary nucleus - horizontal sound
2. inferior colliculus - horizontal and vertical sound location
3. medial geniculate body - frequency combinations and delays
4. auditory complex - higher processing of sound information
what is the olivocochlear bundle? What is its function?
a projection of neurons from the superior olivary nucleus that runs into the cochlea to be able to supress the activity in hair cells on certain regions of the organ of Corti. Allows us to focus our attention on certain sounds while tuning out others.
what are the three basic modalities of the vestibular system?
1. linear acceleration/deceleration
2. static head tilt
3. rotational acceleration/deceleration
how does the vestibular apparatus relate to the cochlea?
the scala media is continuous with the vestibular apparatus
what are the three "swellings" of the vestibular apparatus and what type of modalities to they detect?
1. utricle: linear acceleration/deceleration and static head tilt
2. saccule: linear acceleration/deceleration and static head tilt
3. ampullae of the semicircular ducts: rotational acceleration/deceleration
describe the cilia of the hair cells in the vestibular apparatus and how bending of the cilia transmits information
one large kinocilium is arranged with several stereocilia. Depending on the direction of bending, can either increase or decrease the rate of neurotransmitter secretion onto CN VIII neurons
what is the name of the neural tissues that are directly stimulated by the hair cells of the vestibular apparatus?
Scarpa's ganglion
what structure in the utricle and saccule transmits vestibular information?
the macula or otolith organ
what structure inside of the amuplla of a semicircular duct transmits vestibular information?
crista ampulla
how does hair displacement inside of the vestibular sensory apparatus affect the amount of neurotransmitter release
when hairs are bent towards the kinocilium, they release more NT; when they are bent away from the kinocilium, they release less NT.
what are the three basic "layers" of the macula of the inner ear?
1. layer of hair cells and supporting cells
2. tips of the hair cells embedded in a gelatinous layer
3. calcium carbonate otoliths on top of the gelatinous layer
what is the basic structure and function of the crista ampulla?
1. located in each of the ampullae of the semicircular ducts
2. a ridge of hair cells that crosses the diameter of the ampulla
3. the cilia sit in an inverted gelatinous mass called the cupula
4. when the fluid inside of the semicircular ducts moves, it will push the cupula, thus transducing bending of the hair cells (rotational acceleration)
where do vestibular portions of CN VIII synapse in the CNS?
in the vestibular nuclei of the medulla
what are the four different parts of the vestibular nuclei?
rostral, caudal, medial, lateral
where does information from the utricle project, and where does this information go?
utricle projects to Dieter's nucleus (the lateral vestibular nucleus), which sends axons down the entire length of the spinal cord to form the lateral vestibulospinal tract
what is the function of the lateral vestibluospinal tract, and where does the sensory information for this system originate?
compensatory postural adjustments of the trunk and limbs to linear acceleration/deceleration and static head tilt
what is the pathway and function of the rostral and medial vestibular nuclei?
1. synapse with CN III, IV, VI nuclei that control extra-ocular muscles
2. get signals from the crista ampullae
3. called the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF pathway)
4. compensatory ocular movements to rotation of the head: vestibulo-ocular reflex
which vestibular nuclei, cranial nerves, and named pathway are associated with the vestibulo-ocular reflex?
- rostral and medial vestibular nuclei
- CN III, IV, VI
- the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF pathway)
what is the vestibulo-colic reflex, what vestibular nuclei, pathway, and tract are involved?
- compensatory head movements to rotational acceleration
- CN III, IV, VI
- descending portion of the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF pathway)
- called the medial vestibulospinal tract
what is the function of the caudal vestibular nucleus?
- input from all parts of the vestibular apparatus
- communicates with the cerebellum to fine-tune the vestibular reflexes
what is the pathway of vestibular information from the vestibular nuclei to the cortex?
1. vestibular nuclei
2. ventral posteriolateral nucleus of the thalamus
3. cortex
rhythmic flicking of the eye, either pathogenic or non-pathogenic, in response to rotational head movement
nystagmus
what is the basic hierarchy of the motor system?
how does position along the motor system relate to the complexity of motor control?
the more caudal parts of the spinal cord are the simplest behaviors; as you move more rostrally up the spinal cord, towards the cerebral cortex, the movements get more organized
where in the spinal cord are the soma for nerves that supply skeletal muscles, and what is the pathway from spinal cord to muscle?
1. ventral horn
2. α-motor neuron, also called lower motor neuron (GSE)
3. ventral rootlets
4. ventral root
5. peripheral motor nerve
what is a motor unit?
α-motor neuron, its synaptic boutons, and the muscle fibers that it innervates
a collection of motor units within the spinal cord that collectively innervate a particular muscle
motor neuron pool
how is the topographical organization of motor neurons organized?
lateral on the spinal cord --> distal (usually flexor) muscles

medial on the spinal cord --> proximal or axial musculature (postural or extensor)
what provides PSPs to α-motor neurons, where are they located, and how do they differ medially and laterally?
- pre-motor neurons, located in the intermediate zone, control α-motor neurons
- medial pre-motor neurons control medial α-motor neurons
- lateral pre-motor neurons control lateral α-motor neurons
- medial pre-motor neurons can cross the midline (bilateral postural adjustments) whereas lateral pre-motor neurons are unilateral
what type of motor neurons originate from the cranial nerve nuclei that supply the face, head, and neck?
these are α-motor (lower motor) neurons (GSE)
what type of neurons descend from the brainstem down the motor spinal tracts to supply the pre-motor and α-motor neurons?
upper motor neurons
what are the four main brainstem motor spinal pathways, and where are they positioned along the spinal cord?
1. vestibulospinal tract - medial
2. reticulospinal tract - medial
3. tectospinal tract - medial
4. rubrospinal tract - lateral
what is origin in the brainstem of the vestibulospinal tract and what is its function?
originates in the vestibular nuclei and is involved in compensatory postural adjustments in response to vestibular information
what is origin in the brainstem of the tectospinal tract and what is its function?
- originates in the rostral colluculus of the mesencephalon
- gets input from the visual system (retino-tectal pathway), somatosensory system (spino-tectal pathway), and auditory system
- orients head toward stimulus through motor neurons of the cervical spinal cord
what is origin in the brainstem of the reticulospinal tract and what is its function?
- originates in the reticular formation and the pons
- projects to all parts of the spinal cord for postural adjustments and to set the platform for an impending voluntary movement
- for example, poising the body to compensate for an arm movement
what is origin in the brainstem of the rubrospinal tract and what is its function?
- originates in the motor cortex --> the red nucleus
- allows for higher level voluntary control of muscle movement
where in the spinal cord do α-motor neurons from the rubrospinal tract originate?
from the lateral part of gray matter from the ventral horn and the lateral column of ventral white matter
what is the name of the pathway from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord that can bypass the brainstem to directly supply motor neurons?
corticospinal pathway (aka the pyramidal pathway)
what the course of information along the corticospinal pathway?
1. primary motor cortex (telencephalon)
2. cerebral peduncle
3. through the pons to the pyramid
4. most neurons cross the midline at the pyramid as the lateral corticospinal tract; some don't and form the medial corticospinal tract
5. spinal cord
5.
where is the primary motor cortex located in the primate and the lower mammal?
primate: rostral to the central sulcus

lower mammal: at the cruciate sulcus between the primary and frontal lobes
what muscles do the medial and lateral corticospinal tract respectively supply?
medial: axial and proximal musculature

lateral: distal musculature
what is the basic function of the pre-motor cortex?
preparatory orientation of the body for voluntary movement (e.g. positioning hands above a piano keyboard before the motor cortex will push the piano keys)
what is the location and funciton of the basal ganglia?
in the caudate nucleus and putamen, to help select the appropriate type of movement for a particular context
what is the basic role of the cerebellum?
to get the "blueprint" of a planned movement and make sure it goes according to plan by making fine motor adjustments
where do preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system originate?
GVE fibers of cranial nerve nuclei and the sacral spinal cord
what is a common name for the parasympathetic nervous system?
craniosacral division
what is a common name for the sympathetic nervous system?
thoracolumbar division
where are preganglionic cell bodies of the parasympathetic neurons located?
in the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord; sometimes form a tiny lateral horn.

sacral autonomic nucleus
what is another name for the sympathetic trunk?
paravertebral chain ganglia
what are the four possible projections of sympathetic nerve fibers? What is the "wiring of each"?
1. project to the paravertebral chain ganglia (sympathetic trunk) and out to the body wall
- CNS-->communicating ramus-->ganglion-->post-ganglionic neuron-->body wall

2. project to the paravertebral chain ganglia (sympathetic trunk) and out to the body wal
- CNS-->ganglion-->post-ganglionc neuron-->thoracic and lumbar viscera

3. splanchnic nerves
- CNS-->BYPASSES the sympathetic trunk-->pre-vertebral ganglia-->lumbar and pelvic viscera

4. to adrenal medulla
-CNS-->chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla-->adrenal medulla parenchyma
what types of neurons use acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
pre-ganglionic neurons
what is the neurotransmitter used by the parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons?
acetylcholine
what neurotransmitters are used by the sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons?
- mostly norepinephrine
- blood vessels of skeletal muscle and sweat glands use acetylcholine
what type of pre-ganglionic receptors are in in the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
what type of post-ganglionic receptors are in the parasympathetic nervous system?
muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
what type of post-ganglionic receptors are in the sympathetic nervous system?
- α-adrenergic receptors
- β-adrenergic receptors
- muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
where do brain blood vessels reside?
in the sub-arachnoid space
where is the CSF located?
between the pia and arachnoid (the subarachnoid space)
where is CSF produced?
by the choroid plexuses in the brain ventricles
how does CSF get from the ventricles into the sub-arachnoid space?
through two lateral apertures in the fourth ventricle called the Foramina of Luschka
what is a sub-arachnoid cistern? Name two of them.
places in the CNS with very large sub-arachnoid spaces, which are good for obtaining CSF.

1. cerebello-medullary cistern
2. lumbar cistern
what ultimately happens to the CSF?
returns to the venous circulation through the dorsal sagittal sinus, which runs along the dorsal longitudinal fissure. CSF is replaced 4-6 times per day
what are two major functions of CSF and what are two potential clinical uses of CSF?
function
1. cushions the brain
2. carries off toxic waste

clinical use
1. used for diagnostics of brain metabolites
2. injection of drugs to bypass the BBB
what are the two main pairs of arteries bringing blood to the brain?
1. vertebral aa.
2. internal carotid aa.
what arteries of the brain do the verterbal and internal carotid aa. supply?
- circle of Willis
- basilar artery
what are the courses of the basilar artery and the circle of Willis?
- the basilar artery runs the length of the pons and medulla at the ventral midline
- the circle of Willis is a vascular ring that forms from the rostral pons to a bit rostral of the optic chiasm
- the rostral end of the basilar artery anastmoses with the circle of Willis
what are the five major (paired) blood vessels from the basilar artery and circle of Willis and what parts of the brain do they supply?
1. rostral cerebral a. --> rostromedial cerebrum
2. caudal cerebral a. --> caudomedial cerebrum
3. middle cerebral a. --> lateral cerebrum
4. rostral cerebellar a. --> rostral cerebellum, midbrain
5. caudal cerebellar a. --> caudal cerebellum
from what do the pons and medulla receive their blood supply?
from branches of the basilar a.
how does blood leave the brain?
dural venous sinuses --> internal jugular v. --> external jugular v.
what is thought to contribute the most to the selective permeability of the blood-brain barrier?
the endfeet of astrocytes
an organ that is a collection of taste receptor cells, basal cells, and supporting cells
taste bud
a hole in the top of a taste bud through which chemicals gain access to taste receptor cells
taste pore
what granial nerves are involved in gustation and what do they supply?
VII - rostral 2/3rd of tongue
IX - caudal 1/3rd of tongue
X - taste buds on palate and back of oral cavity
what are the very basic functions of the two parallel taste pathways?
1. conscious taste discrimination (e.g. lemon tastes sour, Twinkie tastes sweet)
2. emotional response to taste
what is the neural pathway for conscious taste discrimination?
1. cranial nerves VII, IX, X -->
2. solitary nucleus -->
3. ventral posterior medial (VPM) nucleus of the thalamus -->
4. primary gustatory cortex
what is the neural pathway for emotional response to taste?
1. cranial nerves VII, IX, X -->
2. solitary nucleus -->
3. parabrachial nucleus of the pons -->
4. hypothalamus or the amygdala of the telencephalon (part of the limbic system)
what type of receptors are gustatory receptors?
secondary
what type of receptors are olfactory receptors?
primary
what is the pathway of olfactory stimulus to the CNS?
1. olfactory nerve (CN I) -->
2. olfactory bulb -->
3. mitral cells of the olfactory bulb -->
4. olfactory tract
5. primary olfactory cortex of the piriform lobe
what are the very basic functions of the two parallel olfactory pathways?
1. conscious odor discrimination
2. emotional/regulatory reponses to odors
what is the "wiring" of the conscious odor discrimination pathway originating in primary olfactory cortex?
1. primary olfactory cortex (piriform lobe) -->
2. mediodorsal thalamic nucleus in the diencephalon -->
3. orbito-frontal cortex
what is the "wiring" of the emotional/regulatory response originating in primary olfactory cortex?
1. primary olfactory cortex (piriform lobe) -->
2. hypothalamus and hippocampus (part of the limbic system)
what part of the brain deals with emotion and autonomic regulation?
limbic system