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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which gene produces the protein testis determining factor?
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the Sry gene on the Y chromosome
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What does the testis determining factor cause?
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the indeterminate gonad to develop into a testis
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What happens in the absence of Testis determining factor?
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The indeterminate gonad becomes an ovary
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What do the testis produce?
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androgens, primarily testosterone
Mullerian Inhibiting hormone |
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What does Mullerian inhibiting hormone do?
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Causes the female system to regress
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In the absence of testosterone during development what happens to genetic females and males?
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both genetic males and females look and act like females
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In the presence of testosterone during development what happens to genetic females and males?
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both genetic males and females look and act like males
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What spikes do females and males have in development?
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Males have early spike in testosterone, Females have neither a spike in testosterone or estrogen
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If a newborn male has his testis removed, what happens?
if a newborn female has early testosterone, what happens? |
the male becomes feminized and the female becomes masculinized
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Hormones have what two kinds of effects? What do they mean?
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Organization and Activational Effects
Organizational causes a system to develop in a certain way Activational Effect - activates an already developed system |
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dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is responsible for what?
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masculine characteristics
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What converts testosterone into DHT?
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5-alpha-reductase
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What happens if there is a lack of 5-alpha reductase? What are these called in mexico?
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Low DHT levels until puberty, genetic males look exactly like females
Huevadoces |
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What happens to huevadoces at puberty?
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there is a rise in testosterone that produces enough DHT to induce male physical characteristics
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How does testosterone affect the differentiation of the brain?
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testosterone is turned into estrogen and the estrogen masculinizes the brain
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How is testosterone turned into estrogen in the brain (what molecule)?
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aromatase
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what does alpha-fetoprotein do? How does it do this?
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prevents all females from being masculinized.
It does this by binding estrogen so it can't get into the cell and masculinize the brain |
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What is characteristic of FAS affected brain growth (actually in the brain)?
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FAS brains have increased cell death and altered cell growth
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What does FAS cause in children?
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Mental retardation
Attention deficit disorders impulsive behavior Decreases early testosterone surge in males |
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What are some other statistics of the FAS affected?
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95% will have mental health problems
60% will have disrupted schooling 60% will experience trouble with the law 80% will not be able to live independently |
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What is the brain's dominant excitatory transmitter? What does it do?
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Glutamate, it binds to NMDA and is required for neural activity.
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What is it called when cells commit suicide to not leave anything that could harm other cells?
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apoptosis
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What does MK-801 do?
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Blocks NMDA receptor and thus decreases neural activity
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What is the dominant inhibitory neurotransmitter? what increases the ability to inhibit neurons (substance)?
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GABA, which acts on GABA receptors
benzodiazepines, alcohols, barbiturates |
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What is PCP (molecule's function) and what does it cause to happen?
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An NMDA receptor antagonist that induces apoptosis
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What is Hydrocephalus?
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When the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked and pressure in the skull increases
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What are some reasons that they thought mercury was dangerous in vaccines?
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as the number of vaccines for children increased, the number of autism cases has increased
thimerosol injected into mice causes autism-like behavior thimerosol damages cells in culture |
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What is some of the evidence around the MMR vaccine causing autism?
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MMR vaccine introduction was not accompanied with a rise in autism
vaccinated and unvaccinated children have the same probability of autism the report of measles virus in the gut of autism patients was false no increase in autism in those who have measles |
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What is some of the evidence regarding mercury and autism?
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No relationship between thimerosol injected and autism
Thimersol was removed but autism rates stayed the same no increase in autism in mercury-poisoned communities genetic basis of the disorder has become evident |
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Why do people believe it about autism being caused by MMR vaccines?
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20% of autistic children seem normal and then regress around the time they get vaccines
people want to blame someone for autism and the drug companies are good targets media focus on scare stories |
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What has been a consequence of the MMR vaccination and autism scare?
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vaccinations have plummeted
There is a rise in the occurrence of Measles, Mumps, and Rubella 5000 suits against the government vaccine fund and drug companies funds used for thimerosol and MMR research could have been used on autism |
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What is addiction?
What is withdrawl? What is tolerance? |
It is what happens when there is repeated drug administration and a craving for it
Withdrawl is what happens when an addicted person has a lack of a drug that causes unpleasant symptoms. It is actually the compensatory response, which lasts longer than the actual drug effect and so addicts want to take more of the drug to avoid the withdrawl/compensatory response waiting at the end Tolerance is what happens when repeated administrations of a drug lead to decreased drug effect |
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What are some of the characteristics when someone is administered morphine?
What is hypothermia? |
Euphoria
Blocking of pain Decreased blood pressure Warm skin drying of secretions hypothermia is when you feel colder than your homeostasis T same effects in human and animals |
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Describe Pavlovian learning
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When an unconditional stimulus results in an unconditional response, a conditional (artificial) stimulus that is presented at the same time can begin to result in the same response. When the conditional stimulus provokes it, it is called a conditioned response.
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Describe Pavlovian drug learning
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When a drug is administered and gives a drug response in the body (the unconditional stimulus and response), the drug administration ritual starts to become a conditioned stimulus with a conditional response, also called the compensatory response.
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What do we know about the conditional response and the unconditional response?
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They do not need to be the same. i.e. drug response (unconditional) and the compensatory response
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What is the compensatory response?
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A learned, conditional response that is triggered by drug administration rituals that produces all of the opposite effects of the drug.
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Describe the compensatory response for morphine
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depression
pain sensitive hyperthermia increased blood pressure cool skin increased secretions |
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So when someone is using drugs does the unconditional response get lower? What is tolerance then?
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No, it stays the same, but the compensatory response just creates the opposite effect so that it seems like the drug isn't affecting the individual as much.
Tolerance is just a compensatory response that acts with the opposite effects of the drug that has been learned over time. |
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What are some of the clinical implications of the compensatory response?
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Increased relapse for rehab patients because the drug administration rituals do not change
Addiction for people who do not have a drug administration ritual is less common Changing the conditions under which the drug is given slows tolerance |
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What is the best way to unlearn a learned compensatory response? What is another name for this?
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Perform the drug ritual without taking the drug, also called extinction
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Why didn't Vietnam returnees revert to addiction?
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The drug administration ritual was changed from Vietnam to US
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What are characteristics of drug overdoses?
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The drug doses people get is usually not as high as they think it is
People die with a dose they enjoyed the day before Rat given drug in one environment were not tolerant to the drug if tested in a new environment New environment doesn't predict the drug and so no compensatory response |
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What chemically causes addiction? (Molecules and brain parts)
What happens to rats if the pathway is destroyed? |
Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which project to the nucleus accumbens (NA) are activated by all drugs that are addictive
Rats do not become addicted |
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What does nicotine do to the VTA?
How does cocaine work? What do alcohols and opiates do molecularly? |
induces VTA neurons to release Dopamine
It blocks the reuptake of DA into VTA neurons They quiet neurons that would ordinarily inhibit DA. |
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What are some of the things that happen to your body when you sleep?
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Temperature drops
Growth hormone increases Cortisol drops and then rises Prolactin stays constant |
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What happens if the Suprachiasmatic nucleus is damaged?
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There is no rhythm to bodily sleep functions
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What is the Pineal gland?
How does light decrease melatonin? |
A part of the brain that releases melatonin
Light excites the SCN, which inhibits the superior cervical ganglion, and that inhibits the pineal gland which decreases melatonin |
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Decreased sleep with age can be due to
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decreased melatonin levels
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How are teen sleep patterns different?
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Teens do not hae a melatonin surge until much later at night than adults or children
Most do not get the 9.2 hours of sleep they need High schools start early Schools that delay the first class show improved grades for their students |
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What are characteristics of the sleep cycle (what changes with each stage? How do infants have REM? How long is one sleep cycle?
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amplitude and frequency of electro-encephalogram recordings change with sleep stages
Infants have REM with eyes open One sleep cycle is about 90 minutes |
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What are some difference between slow wave sleep and REM?
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slow wave sleep (SWS) has slow heart rate, slow respiration, maintained thermo regulation, decreased brain temperature, reduced cerebral blood flow, normal reflexes, vague thoughts, reduced cortex firing, and low gastric acid
REM has high bursting heart rates, variable w. high bursts of respiration, impaired thermo-regulation, increased brain temperature, high cerebral blood flow, suppressed reflexes, vivid dreams, increased cortex firing rates, conjugate and rapid eye movements, and high gastric acid. |
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What are some sleep disorders?
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No REM, atony
Insomnia Sleep walking Narcolepsy, Cataplexy |
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What causes narcolepsy? What medication is used to treat it?
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Orexin-positive cells in hypothalamus are connected to sleep nuclei
Dogs with narcolepsy have impaired orexin function (absence of receptors) Orexin-knockout mice have difficulty staying awake Narcoleptics have no orexins Can be treated with Modafinil, which activates orexin neurons |
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What are some drugs taken for sleeping? How much has prescription gone up?
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Tranquilizers, barbiturates, alcohol (all of these are addictive)
New generation of sleeping drugs (Z) have few side effects and do not seem to be addictive Number of prescriptions of sleeping drugs has gone up by 60% |
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Who is fairly susceptible to sleep apnea?
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Overweight men
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Drugs that affect depression block what stage of sleep?
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REM sleep, REM deprivation decreases depression symptoms for a long period
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Describe the link between sleep deprivation and depression in older people.
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Seniors with insomnia and no history of depression were 6 times more likely to get an episode of depression
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Describe characteristics of the cycle of sleep what restorative effects it has
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Circadian rhythm
Decrease metabolism consolidate learning (more sleep after more learning) develop brain. young children sleep much more filter unimportant information psychological interpretation of dreams growth hormone secretion during SWS, cortisol later in the night, prolactin tied to REM, testosterone peaks during the first REM period Restoration of the body |
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What are the health issues of sleep deprivation from rather than the lack of sleep itself?
When can people with sleep disorders die? |
sleep deprivation doesn't normally lead to death, health issues are usually from stress. There is fatal familial insomnia where people die after about 1.5 years without sleep.
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What do humans remember most?
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Human faces
Human interactions Surprising events Emotional Events Interesting things Information that they process Repeated information |
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What is declarative memory for?
What about nondeclarative? Which are implicit and explicit? |
memory of facts and events, Declarative is explicit
Nondeclarative (implicit) Memory for emotional responses, Pavlovian learning, procedural learning for skills and habits |
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Who is S?
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limitless memory, all of the memory went into long term memory, suggested that the brain is capable of remembering everything
He had difficulty forgetting things and distinguishing between reality and fantasy and ended up in an asylum for the mentally ill |
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Are exceptional memories innate?
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No, the can definitely be learned, little difference between those who have acquired them by practice
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What is Savant Syndrome?
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When an individual has limited mental abilities but extraordinary memories
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What is Retrograde amnesia?
What is Anterograde amnesia? Global Amnesia? |
Retrograde amnesia is when you can't remember past memories
Anterograde amnesia is when you can't form new memories Global Amnesia is when you can't remember either Anterograde or Retrograde |
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What is most likely to lead to Anterograde amnesia?
Who was the patient who had Anterograde amnesia? He shows improvement on nondeclarative tasks, should he be able to develop drug tolerance? Why? |
Hippocampal damage
H.M. Yes, he shows improvement on nondeclarative tasks (perceptual) because tolerance is pavlovian learning through the body, with nondeclarative memory/procedural tasks, which also means drug rituals can be encoded |
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What term memory is the Hippocampus responsible for?
Is it responsible for non declarative or declarative? |
Hippocampus is not the site of long-term memory, it's not required for long term memory, and it is also not needed for short term memory. It is needed to CONVERT short term into long term memory. Required for declarative memories, not nondeclarative
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What is the most common reason for retrograde amnesia (body occurence)?
What can people remember with retrograde amnesia? |
Stroke
experiences far before an event but not around the event itself, but they can remember after the event just fine, just not the event. |
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what does damage to the fusiform face area produce?
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prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)
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What is Korsakoff's syndrome caused by? what does it cause?
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Korsakoff's is caused by low thiamin (B1) with alcoholism, which results in global amnesia
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What two parts of the brain being stimulated signals the most effective learning?
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peri-rhinal cortex and parahippocampal cortex
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Who discovered Alzheimer's disease?
About half of those over what age have AD? What are some risk factors? |
Alois Alzheimer
90 Prevalence doubles with every decade of life after 60 Risk is higher for relatives of affected individuals More common in women head trauma can be a cause high cholestrol lack of mental stimulation |
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What are some tests for alzheimer's patients?
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Ask about dates and locations,
Ask to remember 3 words Ask to subtract 7 from 100 Name objects, do a three step command, repeat a sentence, copy a figure or shape, and write a sentence |
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Where does the brain atrophy affect in alzheimer's?
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Language and memory sectors, hippocampal degeneration leads to anterograde amnesia
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What are plaques and tangles caused by in Alzheimer's patients?
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accumulated beta-amyloid proteins that block neurons from talking to each other, tangles cause neurons to die from within
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What is the major drug used to counter AD?
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ACHE (acetylcholinesterase) inhibitor like Aricept
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Amyloid is thought to be the central molecule in AD.
Where is it found in the brain? How is it folded? Is it toxic at low levels? What has shown promise in mice? What happens to mice with accumulated beta amyloid? What else genetically increases the risks for alzheimer's? |
amyloid is found in all plaques
Amyloid aggregates into a beta-pleated structure called beta amyloid Aggregated beta amyloid induces dose-dependent toxicity Vaccines in mice work with AD-like syndromes Mice with increased beta-amyloid have cognitive deficits Genetic disorders that increase beta amyloid induce alzheimer's or similar brain diseases |
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What initiates Alzheimer's disease (molecules and how everything comes about)?
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Gamma-secretase is an enzyme that cleaves amyloid precursor protein (APP) into amyloid beta 40 (Ab40) or amyloid beta 42 (Ab42)
AD starts when more Ab42 is produced |
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What does amyloid do to glutamate? How does amyloid result in cell death?
How are some alzheimer's patients treated (what type of blocker?) |
blocks glutamate's uptake in the glia
Increased activation of NMDA receptor Increased intracellular calcium Increased calcium-activated proteases (these eat up cell, calcium activates these enzymes) Cell death AD patients are treated with NMDA blockers |
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What are some ways that neurons die? (processes)
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Membrane blebbing, shrinkage, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, DNA breakdown
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What are some of the similarities between apoptosis and AD affected brain?
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acculumation of beta-amyloid
Increased oxidative damage Brain derived neurotrophic factor deficiency (BDNF) Reduced brain metabolism Increased lipid peroxidation Abnormal calcium-binding proteins |
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What is found damaged in AD neuronal cells for long periods of time during the disease rather than immediate apoptosis? Why? What molecule plays a key role in this?
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DNA damage in Neurons, even though the cells theoretically should die because the mechanism is apoptosis. The cells stay intact with only damaged DNA because an AD brain up-regulates bcl-2, which protects against cell death due to beta amyloid
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What enzymes are higher in concentration in AD brains?
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DNA repair enzymes
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How do learning and exercise help preserve neurons? What happens in mice?
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learning induces BDNF expression in the hippocampus and physical activity also increases BDNF
mice kept mentally and physically ctive produce 5x more hippocampal neurons than when in a solitary cage |
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What do diets in high fat and sugar do with reference to BDNFs? What about Stress? Should BDNF levels be high or low for learning?
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Diets high in fat and sugar decrease hippocampal BDNF
Stress decreases BDNF Rats with low BDNF levels learn poorly, higher levels are more beneficial |
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How do cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins) help AD?
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Statins decrease the processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by gamma-secretase, leasing to decreased production of beta amyloids
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Antioxidant that helps AD?
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Vitamin E
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What is special about patients with rheumatoid arthritis? What did scientists originally think and why does it help AD?
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They don't get AD, they take high levels of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
However, it wasn't the anti-inflammatory effects that worked, Ibuprofin appears to affect gamma secretase to decrease the amount of Ab42 |
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Other AD Risk factors (women)?
Others that HELP the risk of AD? |
Women have a higher rate of AD
Women on hormone replacement therapy were thought to have lower rate of AD Bilingual Cognitive or motor activity Omega 3 oils Curry Fruits or fruit juices Stress increases it dramatically |
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What combats these aspects of AD?
Low metabolism Oxidation (DNA damage) Excito-toxicity |
Low metabolism - Exercise
Growth Factors Excito-toxicity - NMDA blockers Oxidation (DNA damage) - Antioxidants, Vitamin E |
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What bodily effects does acute stress give? What does it prepare you for?
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Energy Mobilization
Cardiovascular tone increased digestion halted growth halted reproduction halted Immune Suppression Improved cognition Fight or flight |
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What syndromes/diseases and injuries can Chronic Stress lead to?
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Fatigue Myopathy (muscle weakness)
Hypertension Ulceration Dwarfism Impotency Disease risk increases Neuronal death |
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How does stress affect the immune system? What is the specific molecule responsible (and types of molecules)? What do chronically high levels of these molecules cause (diseases)?
What else increases the risk for these diseases? |
proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6) attract immune cells to injuries
Chronically high levels of cytokines increase heart disease, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis, and arthritis smoking, depression, sleep loss, high-fat diet, lack of exercise, and aging |
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spousal caregivers of what disease have imparied immune systems?
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AD spouses
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Mice are fed a high sugar/fat diet, what other factor makes them become overweight?
What molecule mediates weight gain? Blocking it does what? Alone what does it do? |
Stress
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Blocking NPY prevents obesity NPY alone induces obesity |
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What are glucocorticoids and after what is stimulated by what are they secreted? What are the main two you should know? What increases glucocorticoids? What increases cortisol chronically?
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Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones secreted after stimulation of the adrenal cortex by pituitary ACTH
2 Glucocorticoids are Cortisol and Corticosterone Stress increases them Aging increases them chronically |
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What part of the body has the densest glucocorticoid receptor population?
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hippocampus
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How does chronic stress damage the brain? How do seizures, hypoxia, and ischemia damage the brain?
As rats age, and hormones increase, what happens? |
Glucocorticoids (GCs) increase neuronal loss. GCs make the neurons more vulnerable to damage by limiting brain glucose transport
If the brain experiences seizures, hypoxia, or ischemia, there is neuronal loss only if there are adrenal glands. These events cause an increase in excitatory amino acids (EAAs) like Glutamate, which stimulate NMDA receptors, which then increase intracellular calcium. High intracellular calcium increases calcium-activated protease activity, which destroys neurons the higher the hormone levels, the greater the neuronal loss |
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How can the neuron survive high intracellular calcium due to seizures? What is this opposed by (molecules)
What are glial cells (the glia)? What do they take up that helps prevent neuronal loss? How do GCs affect the glia? |
A neuron can deal with high calcium if it has sufficient glucose to support energetically costly defense mechanisms, but GCs limit brain glucose transport and prevent that
glial cells take up EAAs like glutamate, which is a glucose dependent process, and thereby limit EAA activity. GCs prevent that mechanism from the glia by disrupting glucose transport to the brain |
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Describe in steps what happens from Stress and hypoxia, ischemia, or seizures? (2 different paths)
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Stress - Glucocorticoids increase, bind to GC receptors in hippocampus - glucose transport down - decreased ability to deal with cellular challenges - Cell Death
Hypoxia/ischemia/seizures - EAAs increase, bind to NMDA receptor - High levels of calcium enter cell - Calcium activates proteases - Cell death |
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What is it when you experience words and abstracts with all of your senses? Who had it?
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Synesthesia S.
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What does hippocampal shrinkage result in?
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memory problems
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What are some of the consequences of chronic stress?
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Hippocampal shrinkage induces memory problems
Dopamine depletion can make it difficult to experience pleasure Norepinephrine depletion diminishes attention Sprouting new neuronal connections in the amygdala may allow stress-producing situations to have a greater effect on the system |
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What are some common stress relief drugs? How do they act on the body?
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Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines (tranquilizers), Librum, Xanax, Valium
All act by opening the GABA receptor's Cl- channel to allow more Cl- ions to enter the cell (neuron) when GABA binds to it. This inhibits cells in the amygdala, where emotional events are processed. |
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How does Caffeine act on the brain?
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It decreases Cl- flow in to the cells by closing up the GABA Cl- channel.
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What happens when more Cl- gets through the GABA receptor bound to a neuron? When less gets through?
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More Cl- means more inhibition of the neuron
Less Cl- means less inhibition of the neuron, so more active |
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What molecule binds to GABA that increases anxiety? Where does it bind (same as what kinds of molecules)? How does it do it?
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Diazepam Binding Inhibitor (DBI) binds to the same site as benzodiazepines, it blocks GABA activation of the Cl- channel, which results in much, much less inhibition of neurons, which leads to anxiety
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The difference in peoples' responses to stress may lie in different levels of what molecule?
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DBI, Diazepam Binding Inhibitor
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What is the steroid released during stress that has the same function as benzodiazepines? Where does it bind? Where is it synthesized and what does it do?
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Allopregnanolone is a steroid synthesized in the glia
It has its own binding site on the GABA Like benzodiazepines (tranquilizers), it opens the Cl- channel so more inhibition of neuron s and less stress. |
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List some symptoms of Depression
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Concentration is impaired
Can't experience pleasure Increase in self-critical thoughts sleep disturbance Feeling fatigued after sleep Decrease in appetite Feelings of guilt, helplessness, or hopelessness Suicidal thoughts Increased isolation |
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How many people (percent) have Depression? What is a genetic factor of it (happens during birth)? What has happened to the mean age of onset (what age ranges too)?
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Affects 13-20% of the population
60% of monozygotic twins both have it Mean age of onset has dropped from 40-50 to 25-35 year olds |
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What are SSRIs? What do they do?
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antidepressants, increase serotonin (Selective Serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
They are used to treat depression |
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What do MAOI's do?
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Increase epinephrine and serotonin, used as antidepressants
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How do tricyclic antidepressants work?
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Imipramine blocks the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine
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What do SSRIs do?
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increase synaptic serotonin
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Whati s 5-HTT? What do mice and humans with a short allele do? When does child abuse predict depression (with what kind of allele)? Humans who have short allele and who have gone through romantic disasters, illnesses etc. become what?
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A serotonin transporter that comes in either a long or a short allele.
Mice and humans with short alleles are more reactive to fearful stimuli Childhood abuse can predict depression only in those with short alleles Humans who have short alleles and romantic diasters etc. more likely to become clinically depressed |
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What are some problems with the monoamine hypothesis?
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Depressed people don't have low serotonin levels
Depleting serotonin doesn't produce depression Increasing serotonin doesn't help depressed people recover Placebos of antidepressants showed the same results 80% of the time over half of studies showed no effect of SSRIs (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) only about 30-40% of cases are significantly improved by drugs Drugs act quickly on neurotransmitters, but depression is reduced only after 3-6 weeks |
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In depression, what is chronically high (molecule)? what causes this (molecule)?
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Cortisol levels are high
Dexamethasone does not suppress cortisol in depressed people |
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Half of those with depression and those who commit suicide have high levels of what?
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cortisol
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What does abuse or emotional trauma in childhood cause to raise levels of cortisol? Among depressed adults, what percent experienced abuse, neglect, or parental loss in childhood?
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permanently disrupts the glucocorticoid axis
About half (45%) of depressed adults experienced abuse, neglect, etc. |
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What is CRH? When it is put into the rat brain the behaviors of what two states is produced?
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Corticotropin-releasing hormone, it is involved in the stress response
behaviors are analogous to anxiety and depression |
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What effect does stress have on depression? How?
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it worsens depression
Sress, cortisol, or depression increase cell death and decrease neurogenesis |
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What affect do antidepressants have on the brain and hippocampus?
What increase cell proliferation? How long does it take for new neurons to be incorporated into the hippocampus and why is this important? |
causes neuron levels to increase, repopulates the hippocampus
Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and exercise increase cell proliferation 3-6 weeks for incorporation of neurons into hippocampus, this is as long as it takes for antidepressants to take effect |
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What blocks neurogensis in the hippocampus and the beneficial behavioral effects of antidepressants?
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cortisol/Stress
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What does loss of BDNF lead to?
What does cortisol do to BDNF levels? What increases BDNFs? How are BDNFs neuroprotective? (what do they produce, molecule) What helps produce this molecule? |
depression
cortisol lowers BDNF levels exercise and antidepressants increase BDNFs BDNFs are neuroprotective because they produce BCL-2 Antidepressants produce Bcl-2 |
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What percentage of patients benefit from ECT?
ECT increases what receptor sensitivity and stimulation? What are two other effects of ECT? |
85%
5-HT some memory loss and increased neural proliferation |
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What is Transcranial stimulation and what is it used for?
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Magnetic stimulation of the left prefrontal cortex, alleviates depression symptoms for a few days
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What are some symptoms of Bipolar disorder (LOTS)?
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Staying up for long hours, feeling like you don't need sleep
easily agitated starting new projects before you finish other ones and then never finishing anything increased activities and energy racing thoughts inflated self-esteem promiscuity get excited easily talkativeness |
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What are some facts about bipolar disorder?
What molecules are decreased in this disorder? How is it treated (two different molecules)? How does this work? |
patients cycle between severe depression and mania
BDNFs are decreased Lithium is used to treat it, this helps by increasing neuronal proliferation and keeping glutamate between cells at a stable level Depakote is an anticonvulsant, it increases BCL-2 |
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Seasonal Affective disorder has what symptoms?
Who is it shown to be most prominent in? How is it treated? Why is this treatment needed? (what molecule needs suppression?) |
In winter they are depressed, gain weight, sleep a lot, slow activity
In summer they feel fine, eat less, sleep less, and increase activity Mostly in women Can be treated by sitting in front of lights with the natural light spectrum These people need much more light stimulation to suppress melatonin |
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What happens to the sleep stages during sleep deprivation?
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Deprivation induces increase in stage 4 and REM sleep increase in intensity
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What is another name for 5-HT?
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serotonin
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What effects do opiates mimic?
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mimic the effects of dopamine on the Nucleus accumbens (DA on the NA)
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