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152 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are two basic types of cells in the nervous system.
Glial Cells and Neurons
What are neurons?
Soma, grey matter, information processing (we have 100 billion neurons). One of two types of cells in the nervous system.
What are the supporting cells in the nervous system called? Spell.
Glial cells
What are Glial cells?
One of two types of cells in the nervous system.
Supporting Cells.
What do neurons do?
-Convey information. -Electrical signals. -Convey information from one part of the neuron to another. -Chemical signals -Carry information between neurons. -Each neuron has a cell body (soma, grey matter)
What does each neuron have? (1 answer) What is that? (2 answers)
Cell body. Soma aka Grey Matter.
What are the extensions of the cell body called? Spell.
Dendrites.
Receiving incoming information, towards the cell body, is called _____ (spell).
Afferent.
Dendrites take information ______ the cell body.
towards
_________ information is afferent.
Sensory
T/F Each cell has one dendrite.
F. Each cell can have many dendrites.
What is an axon? Where are they located? How many?
-Long, cylindrical process. -One is located on each neuron.
What does the axon do?
Takes information away from the neuron to another neuron (efferent)
When information is taken away from the cell body, it is called _________ (spell).
Efferent
T/F Axon can have many branches.
True
What is at the end of the branches on the axon? Spell.
Terminal boutons (aka telodendria)
What are types of neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System and the Central Nervous System?
1) Monopolar = one projection
2) Bipolar = two projections
3) Multipolar = many projections
What is an example of Bipolar neurons?
auditory hair cells.
How can the Central Nervous System be divided up?
1) Grey matter
2) White Matter.
What characterizes grey matter?
-Cell groupings. -Highly vascular (tremendous blood supply in neurons). -Collection of cell bodies
What characterizes white matter?
-Can be ascending pathways and descending pathways. -Collection of axons. -Ascending pathways FROM cerebellum, brainstem and spinal cord. -Descending pathways TO brainstem, cerebellum to spinal cord.
Descending pathways are _______.
motor
Ascending pathways are ________.
sensory
What are three areas of synapse?
1) Axon (axonal ending--terminal boutons) = pre-synaptic side
2) Dendritic Zone = forms post-synaptic zone. 3) Synaptic Cleft = space between the pre and post- synaptic zones.
Pre-synaptic zone is _________.
Axon
Post-synaptic zone is _______.
Dendritic Zone.
The space between the pre- and post-synaptic zones.
Synaptic cleft.
What happens with synaptic transmission?
-Chemical event.
1)-Vesicles at the end of terminal boutons (go to the edge of the terminal boutons).
2)-Contains neurotransmitters (chemical).
3)-Carries information across synaptic cleft.
What are some neurotransmitters? Spell their names.
Serotonin
Dopamine
Acetylcholine
Neurons can be categorized in two ways: ________ and ________.
By Function & By Diameter.
How can Neurons be categorized by function?
1) Sensory (afferent): Their job is to take information into the CNS --Pain, touch, temperature changes... Any kind of sensory information we have.

2) Interneurons (connect): Very small. All they do is connect two neurons to each other. Interneurons are subcortical and in spinal cord.

3) Motor (efferent): take information going out of the CNS. Ends on muscles and glands.
How can neurons be categorized by diameter?
-Diameter of axon is directly related to the speed of transmission. The larger the fibers, the faster the transmission. -Nerve cells combine together. -Axons travel in one direction know as nerve tracts.
Why is it good to have neurons with axons of different diameters?
Because some transmissions for some functions we want to be fast (like grabbing a pen and writing), which those have big axons in diameter, and some functions we should have slow (like digestion of our food), which have small axons in diameter.
What do Glial cells do?
-Glue to support neurons; hold things together. -Gargage collectors that regulate composition of extra cellular fluid (will get dead neurons out of the system, for example).
What are two types of Glial cells? (spell). What do they do?
1) Oligodendroglia: manufacture myeline in CNS.

2) Schwann: manufacture myelin in PNS
What manufactures myelin in the Central Nervous system? Spell.
Oli-god-end-ro-glia, which is a type of Glial cell.
What manufactures myelin in the Peripheral Nervous System? (spell)
Schwann. (a specific type of glial cell).
What is Myelin?
-Lipids and protein in alternating layers and segments.
What is the difference between Oligodendroglia and Schwann Glial cells?
Where they manufacture myelin.

Oligodendroglia is in the CNS.

Schwann is in the PNS.
When and how is Myelin formed?
Formed by glial cells during periods of rapid development.
What does Myelin do?
-Wraps around the axons.
-INSULATES.
-Speeds transmission of neural impulses.
*There is no fine motor coordination until myelination is completed.
When does the majority of myelin sheath in the cerebrum and cerebellum occur?
In the first year after birth.
Funcitonal Relevance of Myelin (Early, Late and MS)
-EARLY= fetus, period of rapid growth.
-LATER= fine motor, complex mental activity.
-MS=a chronic degenerative disease. There is gradual destruction of Myelin in the brain and spinal cord.
What are the Nodes of Ranvier? What do they do?
-Spaces between segments of myelin on axon.
-Flow of impulses jump node-to-node.
-Speeds transmission because of saltatory motion.
What are the spaces between segments of myelin on axon called? Spell.
Nodes of Ranvier
What is the impulse that is "all or nothing" relating to the Nodes of Ranvier? It's jumping.
Saltatory motion.
Electrical jolt is the _______. (saltatory motion)
action potential
1) What is the name for the closed system of 4 communicating cavities within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid?
the ventricles
Damage to Wernicke’s Area might cause problems with
language formulation and auditory comprehension.
Describe Cerebrospinal Fluid's physical properties.
clear, like water, and contains few cells.
The roof of the two lateral ventricles is formed by
the corpus callosum
Some functions of the temporal lobe are:
a) auditory reception/hearing ability. b) memory and language c) Categorization d) some visual perception.
Cerebrospinal Fluid Function and Role
Is MECHANICAL: A) Shock absorber and B) Buffer System. Is a CHEMICAL TRANSPORTER: A) Helps transport chemicals to many parts of the brain B) Regulates effect on chemical composition of extra cellular fluid where neurons and glial cells are bathing.
The 3rd and 4th ventricle are connected by
Cerebral Aqueduct aka Aqueduct of Sylvius.
One difficulty damage to the temporal lobe might cause is difficulty understanding languages. This is referred to as
Wernicke’s aphasia
The three openings of the 4th ventricle are the...
1 opening of Foramen of Magendie and 2 openings of Foramina of Luschka
This term, means “difficulty recognizing faces” and might happen with temporal lobe damage:
Prosopagnosia
T/F (if false, explain why): Temporal lobe damage may cause short term memory loss which then impacts the long-term memory.
True
T/F (if false, explain why): Two of the mechanical roles of the Cerebrospinal Fluid are as a shock absorber and a buffer system.
True
Damage to the Occipital Lobe may result in a) visual field problems b) language comprehension problems c) articulation issues d)visual acuity problems e) all of the above f) a and d.
a) visual field problems
Part of the Arachnoid mater goes inside the ventricles, and, together with ependymal cells, line all parts of the Ventricular system together. These contribute to the formation of the:
the Choroid Plexus.
The lining of the two lateral ventricles is made of:
pia mater.
Where is the Occipital Lobe in relation to the other lobes?
It is the most posterior lobe
The total volume of Cerebrospinal Fluid is:
130-150 ml.
The Primary Visual Cortex, which is in the Occipital Lobe, is found in the:
Calcarine Fissure
Caudate Nucleus = what kind of matter?
Grey matter.
The two Thalami make up the lateral walls of which ventricle?
The Third
What is “alexia without agraphia”?
Cannot read, but can write. Potential consequence to Occipital Lobe damage.
T/F (if false, explain why): Occipital lobe damage may cause difficulty identifying colors and may also cause visual illusions.
True
What manufactures and secretes cerebrospinal fluid?
The Choroid Plexus
What are neurotransmitters?
-Chemical substances released at the end of axons.
-Induced electrical change at dendritic end.
-Can be excitatory or inhibitory (depending on the character of the chemical itself and depending on place).
-Connection between neurotransmitters and behavior.
-30 + Neurotransmitters known.
List some examples of transmitters (spell), and what their particular significance is.
-Norepinephrin: sympathetic nerve endings.
-Dopamine: Schizophrenia and Parkinson's
-Serotonin: helps in regards to depression.
-Acetylcholine: Neuromuscular junctions and memory.
What is Dopamine and what does it do?
-It is a neurotransmitter.
-Regulates reward "dopamine jolt.
Connected to craving, motivation, goal oriented behavior, ecstasy.
How do Neurotransmitters work (5 steps)?
1) Action potential (the "jolt") at the axon hillock.
2) Myelin speeds up propagation.
3) Electrical impulse jumps from node-to-node.
4) Chemical substance released into synaptic cleft.
5) Induces electrical event in dendrite: excitatory or inhibitory message.
Signals that neurotransmitters send from one part of the neuron to another are called _________ signals.
Electrical
Signals that the neurotransmitters send between neurons are called _______ signals.
Chemical signals
Grey matter. What is it? What are it's many names. What is included in it??
Grey matter = cell groupings.

Names include: Nucleus, ganglion, lamina, cortex, body, horn (horn is another term for grey matter, but specifically in the spinal cord).

Includes:
Dendrites: close to cell body.
Axon terminals, but NOT the axon itself.
Glial cells: highly vascular.
What kind of matter is the Dendrite?
Grey Matter.
Is an Axon grey matter?
The axon itself is not. The axon terminal is grey matter.
What kind of matter is the Glial Cells?
Grey Matter.
What is white matter? What are some properties of it? What are some names?
-Primarily bundles of axons from many cells.
-Many are myelinated.
-No cell bodies.
-Have many names including: Tract, Fasciculus, Brachium, peduncle (ex: bundles of fibers, connecting cerebellum to brain and spinal cord), Commissure.
What is the largest fiber bundle in the brain? It connects the 2 hemispheres.
Corpus Callosum aka Commissure.
Explain about cerebral asymmetries:
-R and L hemispheres work together, but each is still dominant for certain activities.
-Asymmetrical for certain activities --> Innate; not a learned event.
In what way do people divide the Nervous System up?
-Anatomical divisions (structure).
-Functional division (what it does.

*There is bilateral symmetry
How is Bilateral Symmetry related to the division of the Nervous System?
-On either side of the midline.
-Pathways and structures.
Anatomical division of the Nervous System is what?
STRUCTURE
-The Central Nervous System (Inside bony structures: brain, spinal cord)

-The Peripheral Nervous System (outside the bony structures: cranial/spinal nerves).
What is the Functional Division of the Nervous System?
WHAT IT DOES.
-Somatic nervous system (voluntary, sensory/motor). Convey information, both conscious and unconscious to the brain.

-Autonomic nervous system (involuntary life processes) Convey and process information from the visceral system, like digestive system and heartbeat.
What does PNS include?
outside bony structures: cranial/spinal nerves.

(anatomical division of the NS)
What does CNS include?
inside bony structures: brain, spinal cord.

(anatomical division of the NS)
List the Gross Anatomy of the brain:
1) Cerebrum (brain part--"drum")
2) Brainstem (stem part--wobbly thing in front)
3) Cerebellum (clump that bells out in back)
4) Spinal Cord (string cheese)
Cerebrum
Inside:
-Right and left hemispheres.
-Joined together by the Corpus Callosum (which has a Genu--anteriorally, a body, a Splenium--posteriorally).
-Ventricles (2 large spaces in each hemisphere--4 total).
How are the right and left hemispheres of the Cerebrum connected? (spell)
By the Corpus Callosum
What are the parts of the Corpus Callosum?
Genu (anterior), Body, Splenium (posterior).

*Remember, CC Connects the R and L hemispheres.
Brainstem location
Below the cerebrum
How is the brainstem subdivided? (spell)
Into 4 pieces:

1) Diencephalon
2) Midbrain = continuous with the big round structure of the diencephalon.
3)Pons = "bridge" Joins the cerebellum and the cerebrum. Also joins the cerebrum with the spinal cord; bulges anteriorally.
4) Medulla Oblongata = Continuous with the spial cord.
What are the functions of the brainstem?
3 Major functions:

1) Relay station = connecting link between cerebral cortex, cerebellum and spinal cord.

2) Integrate importand visceral functions. (pulling all of the information together and take out relevant information)

3) Integrate motor functions.
Cerebellum
"Plant manager" of motor activity.
-Maintain balance, smooth muscle movement.
-Coordinator in motor efferent muscle systems
-(alcohol impairs)
Spinal cord
-Connects brain and body.
-Integrates motor activity (especially reflex).
-Relex happens before brain gets the signal
*Receives info -- sends signals -- ascending and descending.
Meninges (spell)
3 layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.

Membrane, pillowcase encloses brain and spinal cord (notes also say brainstem and cerebellum).
3 Layers encasing brain and spinal cord (spell)
Meninges
Dura Mater
-One of the three Meninges.
-Outermost layer, protective, forms partition between two hemispheres.
-Connected to the skull
-Very tough and protective (durable).
Arachnoid Mater
-One of the three meninges
-Delicate, attached to the inner surface of the dura.
-In the subarachnoid space, there's cerebrospinal fluid. Subarachnoid space is very vascular.
-Trabecula = columns, separate Arachnoid from Pia.
-Cistern = spaces; form through membranes.
-Arachnoid Villi = in cisterns; reabsorb fluid. ("fingers which are pushed through the dura, but are actually from the Arachnoid mater).
Pia Mater
One of the three Meninges.
-Deepest, delicate. In nooks and crannies.
-Attached by huge network of blood vessels.
-Foramen of Magendie and Foramina of Luschka (holes in the ventricles.)
What happens when you peel back the meninges?
You have 2 hemispheres.

-Looking at the surface of the brain, first you have:
1) Outer Cortical layer (surface of the brain) : cerebral cortex
2) Then there is the Sub-cortical layer (internal).
a) Basal Ganglia: subcortical structure = grey matter that doesn't belong to the cortex.
b) Diencephalon --> Thalamus.
How are the two hemispheres of the cerebrum separated?

How are the two hemispheres connected?
Separated into Left and Right by a fissure:
-Longitudinal cerebral fissure.

Connected by the Corpus Callosum.
Surface of the brain. Features. (spell)
Main features of irregular surface of the brain:
-Gyrus: visible portion on the outside.
-Sulcus: shallow fold.
-Fissure: deeper fold.
Cortical layer on the surface = 30%. 70% is hidden from view.
The visible portion on the outside of the cerebrum? (spell)
Gyrus
Shallow fold of the cerebrum? (spell)
Sulcus
Deeper fold of the cerebrum?
Fissure
How much of the cortical layer is on the surface, and how much is hidden from view?
30% on surface
70% hidden from view
Cortex =
Cortical layer of neurons -- grey matter/ neurons found in the folds.
Average thickness of the Cortex
2.5 mm (about 1/8 of an inch).
What is the thickest part of the Cortex? How thick?
Motor part; 4.5 mm.
What is the thinnest part of the cortex? How thin?
Visual part; 1.45 - 2 mm
Importance of Cortex (outer layer of Cerebrum).
-Understanding human behavior, membory, thinking.
-Reasoning, speech and language, motor, verbal, auditory, conscious voluntary activity, psychological behavior
0Intimately connected with subcortical
-Different levels of motor activity: hierarchy (executive = cortex; plant manager = subcortical area; worker = spinal cord).
What are the three types of cells inside the Cortex? (spell)
Pyramidal = primary cells, motor.

Stellate = tiny interneurons (like little stars)

Fusiform = Spindle cells
Three types of fibers

***Check in book direction of fibers***
1) PROJECTION FIBERS = Originate in giant pyramidal cells. Corticospinal is an example. (Go up and down/ from top to bottom)

2) COMMISSURAL FIBERS = Some start as giant pyramidal cells. Some make up corpus callosum. (go across. From Left to Right)

3) ASSOCIATION FIBERS = Originate in pyramidal cells. Conneted within the same hemisphere. Arcuate Fasciculus which connects Broca's and Wernicke's is example. (Go from anterior to posterior)
Cerebral: Each hemisphere is divided into ______ and a number of _______ and _______.
4 lobes. Sulci and fissures.
What are the four cerebral lobes? Spell
-Frontal lobe.
-Parietal lobe.
-Temporal Lobe
-Occipital Lobe.
What are the main sulci and fissures of the Cerebral lobes?
1) Central Sulcus of Rolando
2) Lateral Sulcus of Sylvius
3) Parieto-occipital fissure.
4) Calcarine Fissure
5) Pre-occipital notch.
Where is the frontal lobe located?
From the tip of the brain back to the central sulcus.
Where is the parietal lobe located?
From the central sulcus to "imaginary line" (parieto-occipital fissure)
Where is the temporal lobe located?
-Inferior to the lateral fissure.
-Separated from occipital lobe by pre-occipital notch.
Where is the occipital lobe located?
-Most posterior lobe.
-Bound anteriorally by parietal and temporal lobes.
What is the Insula?
Cortical area, buried in the depths of the lateral sulcus. (Cortical material that's folded in.)
-Hidden by parts of the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes.
-If you open up the temporal lobe, parts that overhang make up the roof of the insula: operculum
-Frontal operculum
-Temporal operculum
-Parietal Operculum.
What is the name for the Cortical area, buried in depths of lateral sulcus? (spell).
Insula
Cingulate Gyrus
-Areas that don't belong to the lobes; just connected.
-Medial location: immediately superior to corpus callosum
-Connected to corpus callosum, olfactory bulb, limbic system (gyrus immediately above corpus callosum)
-Emotional responses
-Drive-Related Behaviors.
Where do we have emotional responses? (spell)
Cingulate Gyrus
Where do we have drive-related behaviors?
Cingulate Gyrus.
What are the anatomical divisions of the Frontal lobe?
GYRI
1) Precentral Gyrus
2) Superior Frontal Gyrus
3) Middle Frontal Gyrus
4) Inferior Frontal Gyrus.

THREE AREAS OF FRONTAL CORTEX/LOBE (front-to-back).
1) Pre-Frontal = Exeutive functions, personality (NOT motor.)
2) Pre-Motor = Everything in front of pre-central gyrus. Related to voluntary motor movement.
3) Pre-central = Motor Strip. Commands for conscious, voluntary motor movement.
Pre-Frontal Cortex function:
Executive functions, personality (NOT motor).
You are your pre-frontal cortex.
Pre-Motor Cortex function:
Everything in front of pre-central gyrus.
Related to voluntary motor activity.
Pre-Central are of Frontal Cortex function:
Motor Strip.
Commands for conscious, voluntary motor movement.
Functional divisions of the Frontal Lobe (names only. Spell)
1) Pre-central gyrus.
2) Superior Frontal Gyrus.
3) Middle Frontal Gyrus.
4) Inferior Frontal Gyrus.
Pre-central gyrus (give details of it)
Primary motor cortex aka motor strip.
-Many neurons of descending pathways. Origin: most pre-central gyrus.
-Initiation of conscious, voluntary motor movement. => just gives command. Rest of the brain refines the activity.
-Area in front of pre-central gyrus is pre-motor area.
-Contralateral and ipsilateral representation
What is contralateral?
Fibers originate on one side of the brain.
-Decussate (cross over)
-Innervate opposite side of the body.
What is ipsilateral?
Fiber tracts originate and innervate the same side.
What is the word to describe "crossing over" fibers? (spell)
Decussate
Superior Frontal Gyrus
-Frontal Lobe functional division.
-Perpendicular to pre-central gyrus
-From central fissure down towards frontal pole.
Area: secondary motor => articulatory speech.
Medially: goes down to meet cingulate gyrus.
Middle Frontal Gyrus
Functional division of the Frontal lobe.
Inferior Frontal Gyrus
-Posterior portion of the 3rd frontal convolution.
-Broca's area in the left hemisphere -- voluntary speech and voluntary articulatory speech. At the foot of the motor strip.
Damage to Broca's area:

What if Insula is compromised?

What if neighboring areas are also compromised?
-Articulation Formulation/ Language Production and written language.

-IF the Insula is compromised, then we also have APRAXIA of speech = this involves the inability to voluntarily move the articulators to produce speech.

Damage to Broca's + neighboring areas = Broca's Aphasia. Comprehension, sentence construction, syntax.
Only minor articulation problems.
What is it called when there is Comprehension, sentence construction, syntax difficulty & Only minor articulation problems? Spell.

What area was damaged?
Broca's Aphasia

Damage to Broca's area, plus neighboring areas.
What is it called when the client has inability to voluntarily move the articulators to produce speech?

What area was damaged?
Apraxia of speech.

*Not a language issue. Articulatory issue only* (person saying tornado)

Damage to Broca's area + Insula also compromised.
What is it called when Articulation Formation and Language Production and written language are compromised?

What area was damaged?
Damage to Broca's area.
Aphasia is all about:
language, language, language
Frontal lobe: Summary of Functions
1) Consciousness: How do we know what we are doing?
2) How do we initiate activity? Decisions we make?
3) Judgements we make about what occurs in our daily life.
4) Control of emotional responses, of expressive language.
5) Assign meaning to words.
6) Word associations.
7) Memory for habits and motor activities.
Frontal lobe summary: Some observed problems.
1) Loss of movement -- contralaterally (paralysis)
2) Unable to plan sequences of events (like making coffee)
3) Loss of flexibility in thinking.
4) Changes in personality and mood.
5) Inability to express language (if they have Broca's Aphasia.)
6) Perseverate (keep doing the same thing over and over); distraction, concrete, emotionally labile, fragmented behavior (don't complete things).
Parietal Lobe: 4 Areas of Interest Spell
1) Postcentral Gyrus = runs parallel to precentral gyrus, but more posterior.
2) Supramarginal Gyrus = "Caps" the upturned end of the lateral sulcus.
3) Angular Gyrus = posterior to supramarginal gyrus.
4) Arcuate Fasciculus = Not visible on lateral view; must go inside to see. Not a gyrus; anatomical landmark. - White matter (white fibers) - Links two areas: Wernickes and Broca's.
What links Wernicke's and Broca's? (spell) On which lobe does this happen?
Arcuate Fasciculus
Happens on Parietal Lobe.
Function of Parietal Lobe:
Plays an important role in ability to discriminate size, shape, texture, maintaining body position in space.
Postcentral gyrus. Where is it, and what does it do?
-Parallel to precentral gyrus, but more posterior.

-Sensory cortex; recieves sensation.
-Initial cortical processing of tactile and proprioceptive information (any sensation that you feel).