Neuroanatomy

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Neuroanatomy:

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the anatomy of the nervous system.
Refers to the study of the various parts of the nervous system and their respective function(s).
The nervous system consists of many substructures, each comprised of many neurons.

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Terms used to describe location:

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Ventral: toward the stomach
Dorsal: toward the back
Anterior: toward the front end
Posterior: toward the back end
Lateral: toward the side
Medial: toward the midline

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Lamina:

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a row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites

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Column:

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a set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties

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Tract:

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a set of axons within the CNS, also know as a projection

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Nerve:

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a set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS

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Ganglion:

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a cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS

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Gyrus, gyri:

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a protuberance on the surface of the brain

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Sulcus:

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a fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another

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Fissure:

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a long, deep sulcus

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The nervous system is comprised of two major subsystems:

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The Central Nervous System (CNS)
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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Central Nervous system consists of:

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Brain and spinal cord

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Spinal cord:

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is the part of the CNS found within the spinal column and communicates with the sense organs and muscles below the level of the head

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The Bell-Magendie Law:

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states the entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information.

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Dorsal root ganglia:

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The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord called the dorsal root ganglia

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Spinal cord consists of grey and white matter: Each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands

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grey matter - located in the center of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites

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white matter – composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord

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The peripheral nervous system consists of:

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Somatic Nervous System &
Autonomic Nervous System

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The Somatic Nervous System consists of nerves that:

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- Convey sensory information to the CNS.
- Transmit messages for motor movement from the CNS to the body

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The Autonomic Nervous System:

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sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc)
Divided into two subsystems:
The Sympathetic Nervous System &
The Parasympathetic Nervous System

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The Sympathetic Nervous System:

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is a network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity:
increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. (“fight or flight” response)
comprised of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord; mainly uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter at the postganglionic synapses

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The Parasympathetic Nervous System:

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facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses;
decreases functions increased by the sympathetic nervous system;
comprised of long preganglion axons extending from the spinal cord and short postganglionic fibers that attach to the organs themselves;
dominant during our relaxed states; Postganglionic axons mostly release acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

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Three major divisions of the brain:

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midbrain, forebrain, hindbrain

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The Hindbrain consists of:

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Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Located at the posterior portion of the brain

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Brain stem:

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Hindbrain structures, the midbrain and other central structures of the brain combine and make up the brain stem

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Medulla:

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Located just above the spinal cord and could be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord; responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing

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Cranial nerves:

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allow the medulla to control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and many parasympathetic outputs to the organs

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Pons:

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lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and anterior);
along with the medulla, contains the reticular formation and raphe system;
works in conjunction to increase arousal and readiness of other parts of the brain

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The Reticular Formation:

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descending portion is one of several brain areas that control the motor areas of the spinal cord;
ascending portion sends output to much of the cerebral cortex, selectively increasing arousal and attention

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The raphe system:

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also sends axons to much of the forebrain, modifying the brain’s readiness to respond to stimuli

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Cerebellum:

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a structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds; helps regulate motor movement, balance and coordination; is also important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli

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The midbrain is comprised of:

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the tectum, superior colliculus & inferior colliculus, tagmentum, and the substantia nigra

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Tectum:

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roof of the midbrain

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Superior colliculus & inferior colliculus:

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located on each side of the tectum and processes sensory information

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Tagmentum:

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the intermediate level of the midbrain containing nuclei for cranial nerves and part of the reticular formation

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Substantia nigra:

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gives rise to the dopamine-containing pathway facilitating readiness for movement

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The forebrain:

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is the most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of two cerebral hemispheres
Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions.
outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex”.
Each side receives sensory information and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body

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Subcortical regions are structures of the brain that lie underneath the cortex.
Subcortical structures of the forebrain include:

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Thalamus and basal ganglia

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Basal Ganglia

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important for certain aspects of movement.

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Thalamus

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relay station from the sensory organs and main source of input to the cortex.

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The Limbic System:

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consists of a number of other interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem.
Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
associated with motivation, emotion, drives and aggression

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Hypothalamus:

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Small area near the base of the brain.
Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones.
Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual behavior and other motivated behaviors

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diencephalon:

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thalamus and hypothalamus together

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Pituitary Gland:

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hormone producing gland found at the base of the hypothalamus

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Basal Ganglia:

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comprised of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus.
Associated with planning of motor movement, and aspects of memory and emotional expression

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Basal forebrain:

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is comprised of several structures that lie on the dorsal surface of the forebrain; contains nucleus basalis

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Nucleus basalis:

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receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia
sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex
Key part of the brains system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention

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Hippocampus:

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is a large structure located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex.
Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain; critical for storing certain types of memory.

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Central canal:

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is a fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord

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Ventricles:

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are four fluid-filled cavities within the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid

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Cerebrospinal fluid:

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s a clear found in the brain and spinal cord:
Provides “cushioning” for the brain.
Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord

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The Cerebral Cortex:

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is the most prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres;
divided into two halves
joined by two bundles of axons called the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure;
more highly developed in humans than other species

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Organization of the Cerebral Cortex:

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Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers) that are parallel to the surface of the cortex;
Cells of the cortex are also divided into columns that lie perpendicular to the laminae

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Four lobes of the cerebral cortex:

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occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal

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Occipital lobe:

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Located at the posterior end of the cortex.
Known as the striate cortex or the primary visual cortex.
Highly responsible for visual input.
Damage can result in cortical blindness

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Parietal lobe:

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Contains the postcentral gyrus (aka “primary somatosensory cortex”) which is the primary target for touch sensations, and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors.
Also responsible for processing and integrating information about eye, head and body positions from information sent from muscles and joints

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Temporal lobe:

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Located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere near the temples.
Target for auditory information and essential for processing spoken language.
Also responsible for complex aspects of vision including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviors.
Klüver-Bucy syndrome associated with temporal lobe damage

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Frontal Lobe:

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Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus.
Precentral gyrus is also known as the primary motor cortex and is responsible for the control of fine motor movement.
Contains the prefrontal cortex- the integration center for all sensory information and other areas of the cortex. (most anterior portion of the frontal lobe)

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The Prefrontal Cortex:

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responsible for higher functions such as abstract thinking and planning.
responsible for our ability to remember recent events and information (“working memory”).
allows for regulation of impulsive behaviors and the control of more complex behaviors

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The binding problem:

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refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the brain produce a perception of a single object.
perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when they produce synchronous waves of activity

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Main categories of research to study the brain include those that attempt to:

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-Correlate brain anatomy with behavior.
-Record brain activity during behavior.
-Examine the effects of brain damage.
-Examine the effects of stimulating particular parts of the brain.

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Phrenology:

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The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior is known as phrenology.
One of the first ways used to study the brain.
Yielded few, if any accurate results

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Correlating brain activity with behavior can involve the identifying of peculiar behaviors and looking for abnormal brain structures or function...

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These abnormal brain structures can be identified using:
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan) &
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

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(CAT) Computerized Axial Tomography Scan

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involves the injection of a dye into the blood and a passage of x-rays through the head.
Scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has been taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image

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(MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging

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involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to image the brain.

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Electroencephalograph (EEG): non invasive method of recording brain activity

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records electrical activity produced by various brain regions.

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Positron-emission tomography (PET) non invasive method of recording brain activity

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records emission of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to produce a high- resolution image

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Regional Cerebral Blood flow (rCBF)

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inert radioactive chemicals are dissolved in the blood where a PET scanner is used to trace their distribution and indicate high levels of brain activity.

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

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uses oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a moving and detailed picture

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Examining the effects of damage to the brain is done using laboratory animals and includes:

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Lesion techniques: purposely damaging parts of the brain.
Ablation techniques: removal of specific parts of the brain.
Researchers use a stereotaxic instrument to damage structure in the interior of the brain

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Gene-knockout approach:

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use of various biochemicals to inactivate parts of the brain by causing gene mutations critical to their development or functioning

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation:

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the application of intense magnetic fields to temporarily inactivate neurons

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Brain Stimulation techniques assume stimulation of certain areas should increase activity:

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Researchers observe the corresponding change in behavior as a particular region is stimulated.
Example: transcranial magnetic stimulation
Limitation is that many interconnected structures are responsible for certain behaviors

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Research has not supported that a larger brain is correlated with higher intelligence:

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Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited validity. (
Moderate correlation exists between IQ and brain size (.3)
Amount of grey and white matter may also play a role.
IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter

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Greater resemblance among twins for both brain size and IQ:

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For monozygotic twins, the size of one twin’s brain correlates significantly with the other twin’s IQ.
Therefore, whatever genes that control brain also relate to IQ

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Men have larger brains than women but IQ is the same:

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Various differences in specific brain structures exist between men and women
Left/right cortex, hippocampus and amygdala
Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities can perhaps be better explained by interest than abilities

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Peripheral Nervous System consists of:

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Somatic: Controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the CNS
Autonomic: Controls involuntary muscles (consists of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems)

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Autonomic Nervous System consists of:

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The Sympathetic Nervous System (expends energy) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (conserves energy)