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425 Cards in this Set
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the single largest input to the hypothalamus
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Fornix
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conveys afferent fibers from the hippocampus to paraventricular nuclei and mammillary nuclei
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Fornix
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conveys afferent fibers from olfactory areas to preoptic and other nuclei
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Medial forebrain bundle
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passes through hypothalamus to the tegmentum of the midbrain and pons connecting to nuclei of CNII-XII, reticular formation and periaqueductal gray
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Medial forebrain bundle
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conveys afferent fibers from the amygdala to the preoptic area and medial zone
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Stria terminals
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more or less parallels the path of the fornix
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Stria terminals
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conveys afferent fibers to the septal nuclei
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Stria terminals
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conveys afferent fibers from the amydala to the lateral zone, preoptic nuclei and the septal nuclei
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Ventral amydalofugal pathway
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a reciprocal pathway back to the hypothalmus
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Ventral amydalofugal pathway
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conveys afferent fibers from erogenous zones of the body to the mammillary nuclei
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The peduncle of the mammillary body
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projections from retina to suprachiasmatic nucleus - presumably involved with circadian rhythms
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Retinohypothalamic fibers
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arises from nuclei in the medial zone
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Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
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fibers descend to terminate in the PAG
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Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
Mammillotegmental tract |
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an indirect influence on autonomic nuclei of brainstem
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Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
Mammillotegmental tract |
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arises from the medial mammillary nucleus
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Mamillothalamic tract
Mammillotegmental tract |
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fibers ascend to terminate in the anterior nucleus of the thalamus
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Mamillothalamic tract
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part of the Papez circuit (Limbic System)
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Mamillothalamic tract
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these fibers mediate exchange of autonomic information between the hypothalamus, cranial nerve nuclei and the spinal cord
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Mammillotegmental tract
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arise primarily from the paraventricular nucleus
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hypothalamomedullary fibers
Hypothalamospinal fibers |
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descend through the PAG and reticular formation of the midbrain and pons to the medulla
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hypothalamomedullary fibers
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What are the functions of the hippocampus?
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Consolidation of long term memory from immediate and short term memory
Regulation of the hypothalamus |
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What are the functions of the Amygdala?
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Higher order regulation of the hypothalamus
Modification of drive-related behaviors and the subjective feelings that accompany these behaviors |
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What part of the brain is crucial in the formation of implicit memory?
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Amygdala
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Stimulation of what part of the brain results in the arrest reflex (increased attention) followed by either flight, fight or defense?
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Amygdala
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What part of the brain provides a pathway for the limbic system to influence the respiratory, cardiovascular and salivary centers in the brainstem?
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Stria medullaris
Septal Nuclei |
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The subiculum and the entorhinal cortex are two of the first places to show the neurofibrillary tangles characteristic of what disease?
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Alzheimer Disease
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Relay of information through the hippocampus is impeded in what disease?
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Alzheimer Disease
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What disease results from long term thiamine deficiency often associated with chronic alcoholism?
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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What disease causes degeneration in the mammillary bodies, the dorsomedial thalamus and fornix and loss of neurons in the hippocampus?
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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What disease makes victims unable to form short term memory and thus long term memory of events since the onset of the disease?
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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Victims may appear to be demented and will piece together parts of old memories to make up for their lack of recent memory (confabulation) in what disease?
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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What disease can result from a heart attack or near drowning?
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Bilateral Temporal Ischemia
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Victims retain old memories but have difficulty forming new short term memory in what disease?
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Bilateral Temporal Ischemia
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What causes diminution of emotional response to stimuli and an inability to remember the proper order of previous events?
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Cingulate Damage
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What disease results from bilateral temporal lobe lesions affecting both amygdaloid complexes and other areas of the temporal lobe?
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Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
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victims display an inability to identify objects by sight
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visual agnosia
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victims may display excessive oral examination of objects
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hyperorality
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victims display a tendency to excessively explore their immediate surroundings
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hypermetamorphosis
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victims display an excessive eating drive even when not hungry
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hyperphagia
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The hippocampal formation, amygdala and parahippocampal gyrus are smaller in what disease?
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Schizophrenia
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Drugs that block monoamine oxidase (MAO inhibitor) or block reuptake of amines into presynaptic terminals (tricyclic antidepressants) help in what disease?
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Clinical Depression
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Dopamine antagonists help with what disease?
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Schizophrenia
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Highest integrator of autonomic and endocrine functions
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Hypothalamus
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Solitary nucleus, Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus, and Nucleus ambiguus are part of what tract?
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Hypothalamomedullary tract
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Intermediolateral cell column is part of what tract?
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Hypothalamospinal tract
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What projects to vagal motor neurons, salivatory nuclei, reticular nuclei, other brainstem neurons (reticular formation) that project to preganglionic sympathetic neurons?
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Solitary Nucleus
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Important coordinator of swallowing
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Nucleus Ambiguus
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vasopressor center
respiration center micturition center vomiting center |
Reticular Formation
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suppresses pain transmission by releasing serotonin (5Ht) and/or causing the release of enkephalins in the dorsal gray horn
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Nucleus Raphe Magnus
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efferents - neurons project as part of lateral funiculus to dorsal gray horn at all levels
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Nucleus Raphe Magnus
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afferents - periaqueductal gray
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Nucleus Raphe Magnus
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The vestibular nuclei and
cerebellum, esp. fastigial nucleus, are afferents to what nuclei? |
Pontine and Medullary Nuclei
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What tract fibers originate from pontine reticular nuclei?
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pontine (medial) reticulospinal tract fibers (Pontine and Medullary Nuclei)
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What tract fibers descend ipsilaterally in the anterior funiculus?
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pontine (medial) reticulospinal tract fibers (Pontine and Medullary Nuclei)
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What tract fibers have an excitatory influence on antigravity (extensor) motor neurons at all spinal cord levels – inhibitory to flexor motor neurons?
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pontine (medial) reticulospinal tract fibers (Pontine and Medullary Nuclei)
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What tract fibers originate from cells primarily in the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis?
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medullary (lateral) reticulospinal tract fibers
Pontine and Medullary Nuclei -efferents |
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What tract fibers descend ipsilaterally (some decussate) in lateral funiculus?
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medullary (lateral) reticulospinal tract fibers
Pontine and Medullary Nuclei -efferents |
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What tract fibers have an inhibitory influence on antigravity (extensor) motor neurons (alpha and gamma) at all spinal cord levels?
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medullary (lateral) reticulospinal tract fibers
Pontine and Medullary Nuclei -efferents |
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The function of what nuclei helps maintain proper muscle tone in antigravity muscles?
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Pontine and Medullary Nuclei
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Direct spinoreticular and collateral spinothalamic fibers,
red nucleus are the afferent fibers from what? |
Lateral Reticular Nucleus
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Efferent fibers project to the vermis of the cerebellum
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Lateral Reticular Nucleus
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Integrated somatosensory relay to the cerebellum as part of the reticulocerebellar tract
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Lateral Reticular Nucleus
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The cerebellum (fastigial and dentate nuclei) and the cerebral cortex are the afferent fibers from what?
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Paramedian Reticular Nucleus
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Efferent fibers project to vermis of cerebellum as part of the reticulocerebellar tract
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Paramedian Reticular Nucleus
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The function of what is presumably for the Lateral Reticular Nucleus?
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Paramedian Reticular Nucleus
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What, located in the pons and medulla, are a major source of epinephrine vital for the maintenance of cortical attention?
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neurons of the nucleus (locus) ceruleus
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the only place in CNS where 1° sensory neurons are found
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pseudounipolar neurons in Mesencephalic Nucleus
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stretches from midpons to rostral midbrain along the cerebral aqueduct
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Mesencephalic Nucleus
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central fibers form the mesencephalic trigeminal tract
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Mesencephalic Nucleus
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multipolar neurons - 2° sensory neurons
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Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN) |
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located in pons medial to entry of sensory root
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Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
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afferent fibers (Aα and Aβ) are the central fibers of certain 1° sensory neurons in the trigeminal ganglion
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Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
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efferent fibers contribute to ventral (anterior)
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Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
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trigeminothalamic tract
involved with tactile discrimination from face and oral cavity |
Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
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compare to nucleus gracilis and cuneatus of dorsal column-medial lemniscus system
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Principal Sensory Nucleus (PSN)
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compare to a displaced sensory ganglion
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Mesencephalic Nucleus
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stretches from level of PSN to C2/C3 blending with dorsal gray horn and has a similar layered structure and is somatopically arranged
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Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN)
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afferent fibers (Aδ and C) are the central fibers of certain 1° sensory neurons in the trigeminal ganglion
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Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN)
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efferent fibers contribute to the ventral (anterior) trigeminothalamic tract
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Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN)
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involved largely with pain and temperature
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Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN)
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compare to the dorsal gray horn of the spinal cord
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Spinal (Trigeminal) Nucleus (STN)
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innervate, via branches of the mandibular nerve, the muscles of mastication, and the mylohyoid , anterior belly of digastric, tensor veli palatini and tensor tympani muscles
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Trigeminal Motor Nucleus
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formed by the Aδ and C fibers in the sensory root of the trigeminal nerve = central fibers of neurons in the trigeminal ganglion
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Spinal Trigeminal Tract
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fibers synapse upon 2° sensory neurons in the spinal trigeminal nucleus (STN)
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Spinal Trigeminal Tract
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fibers have a somatotopic arrangement with an 180° rotation with respect to face
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Spinal Trigeminal Tract
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modalities include pain and temperature from ipsilateral half of face and oral cavity
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Spinal Trigeminal Tract
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transection produces loss of modalities in ipsilateral half of face and oral cavity
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Spinal Trigeminal Tract
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formed by the axons of 2° sensory neurons in the STN and PSN nuclei
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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axons decussate to form this contralateral tract
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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courses in close association with the medial lemniscus
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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fibers synapse on neurons in the VPM nucleus of the thalamus
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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modalities include pain, temperature (STN) and tactile discrimination (PSN) from the face and oral cavity
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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transection results in loss of modalities from contralateral face and oral cavity
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Ventral (or Anterior) Trigeminothalamic Tract (Trigeminal Lemniscus
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fibers synapse on motor neurons in the ipsilateral trigeminal motor nucleus forming the afferent limb of the myotactic jaw jerk reflex
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Mesencephalic Trigeminal Tract
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fibers also project to the ipsilateral cerebellum allowing coordination of movement of oral structures in mastication, speech and swallowing
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Mesencephalic Trigeminal Tract
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fibers also project to PSN and STN
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Mesencephalic Trigeminal Tract
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fibers from STN, PSN also project to cerebellum
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Trigeminocerebellar Fibers
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these fibers allow for the coordination of movement of other structures in the face and oral cavity
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Trigeminocerebellar Fibers
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fibers from PSM, STN and mesencephalic nucleus project to the reticular formation
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Projections to Reticular Formation
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these fibers act as the afferent limbs of complex reflexes
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Projections to Reticular Formation
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two point discrimination, vibratory sense, position sense
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Principal sensory nucleus
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acute pain, temperature and tactile to VPM nucleus of thalamus - chronic pain to intralaminar nuclei
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Ventral (anterior) trigeminothalamic tract
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acute pain and temperature from face and oral cavity
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Spinal trigeminal nucleus
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Corneal Reflex
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facial nerve
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Tearing Reflex
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facial nerve
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Sneezing reflex
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phrenic, vagus and intercostal nerves, thoracic and cervical dorsal rami
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Vomiting Reflex
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vagus nerve - olfactory and glossopharyngeal nerves can also be afferent limbs
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Salivary Reflex
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facial and glossopharyngeal nerves - the olfactory nerve can also be an afferent limb
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Cause of Trigeminal Neuralgia - also known as tic douloureux
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idiopathic in origin
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excruciating pain set off by even minor stimulations in a trigger zone in one or more of the sensory territories of the branches of the trigeminal nerve, often near or in the mouth
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Trigeminal Neuralgia - also known as tic douloureux
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loss of either limb of the reflex puts eye at risk
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Corneal Reflex
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Damage to mandibular nerve results in what?
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flaccid paralysis or paresis of ipsilateral chewing muscles - mandible will deviate slightly to good side due to unopposed medial pterygoid
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clenching of teeth may reveal fasciculations in masseter muscle on what side?
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Damaged side
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Part of the eye that works best in light
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Cones
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Part of the eye that works best with minimal light
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Rods
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responsible for both the formation of the photoreceptor cells and the first events in the perception of light
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Rhodopsin
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Convergence results in what?
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in more sensitivity but loss of acuity
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Vision with only rods
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Scotopic vision
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vision involving both rods and cones
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Mesopic vision
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vision with cones and very few rods
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Photopic vision
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The fovea is specialized for visual acuity in what three ways?
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1. cone outer segments are narrower and more closely packed
2. cone fibers and bipolar cells diverge from the center making the fovea centralis thinner 3. there is an absence of a capillary network overlying the fovea |
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What pathway represents the inferior quadrant of the contralateral hemifield?
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Parietal pathway
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What pathway represents the superior quadrant of the contralateral hemifield?
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Temporal pathway
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Temporal + parietal pathways =
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geniculocalcarine tract
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Area 17
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primary visual (striate) cortex
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Areas 18 & 19 =
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secondary cortex with direct input from area 17 - pathway diverges here to different destinations
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expressed as cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). This is what humans call pitch
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Frequency
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what humans call loudness and is measured in decibels
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Amplitude
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amplitude plotted against time, usually illustrated as a sine wave
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Waveform
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a particular point in a period of uniform circular motion. For sound this is a particular point on the waveform that occurs at regular intervals
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Phase
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20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHZ)
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Infants
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20 Hz to 15-17 kHz
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Adults
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100 Hz to 8000 Hz
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Most sensitive part of range
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1000 Hz to 3000 Hz
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Most human speech
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gather and focus sound energy into the external auditory meatus and on to the tympanum
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Pinna and Concha
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provide clues to the location of sounds, especially with respect to elevation of the source
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Pinna and Concha
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selectively boosts sound pressure 30 to 100 times for frequencies around 3 kHz
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External auditory meatus
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The primary function of the middle ear is a physical process called what?
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called impedance matching
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This is basically a process of converting the air conducted pressure waves that enter the outer ear into liquid conducted pressure waves in the inner ear
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impedance matching
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vibrates in response to the air conducted sound waves in the external auditory meatus
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Tympanum
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act as a system of levers creating a mechanical linkage from the tympanum to the oval window of the inner ear
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Ear Ossicles, Malleus, Incus and Stapes
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arrangement also increases the mechanical advantage to the point where the pressure exerted by the footplate at the oval window is about 22x that of the original sound pressure at the tympanum
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Ear Ossicles, Malleus, Incus and Stapes
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this impedance matching is very efficient between 300 Hz and 3000 Hz
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Ear Ossicles, Malleus, Incus and Stapes
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This where the original sound generated, air conducted pressure waves are converted to liquid conducted pressure waves and finally to neural impulses by the hair cells in the organ of Corti
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Inner Ear
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air conducted pressure waves are converted to liquid conducted pressure waves and finally to neural impulses by the hair cells in the organ of Corti
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mechanoelectrical transduction
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where signal analysis begins as the basilar membrane and hair cells begin the process of frequency discrimination and amplitude detection
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middle ear
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the brains interpretation of intensity
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Loudness
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Loudness appears to be determined in two ways
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number of neurons firing and
firing rate |
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disturbance in sound conduction from outer and/or middle ear to inner ear, e.g., ear wax, damage to ear ossicles, fluid in middle ear
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Conduction Deafness
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loss or reduction in sensitivity to air conducted sound
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Conduction Deafness
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sensitivity to bone conducted sound normal or nearly so
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Conduction Deafness
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damage to auditory nerve and/or hair cells
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Nerve or Sensorineural Deafness
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loss or reduction in sensitivity to both air conducted and bone conducted sound
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Nerve or Sensorineural Deafness
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relatively rare due to bilaterality of auditory pathways
likewise difficult to detect and treat |
Central Deafness
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repeated exposure to loud environmental noise - boilermakers' disease - destruction of the stereocilia
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Sensorineural hearing Loss
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ototoxic drugs such as certain aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin) - poisons hair cells , especially higher frequency sensitive ones
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Sensorineural hearing Loss
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presbyacusis - old age hearing loss - loss of high frequency hair cells near base of cochlea - may have a genetic component
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Sensorineural hearing Loss
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This test takes advantage of the difference in efficiency between air conduction hearing and bone conduction hearing
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Rinne Test
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a tuning fork is struck and the stem is applied to the nasal bones
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Weber's Test
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Describe normal Weber's Test
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If the hearing is equal in both ears the sound will seem to the patient to be coming from within the head
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Abnormal Weber's Test
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If the sound seems to louder in one ear there is a hearing deficit in one of the ears.
strangely enough if one ear has a conductive loss the sound will seem to be louder in that ear |
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measures the compliance (sometimes called "admittance") of the tympanic membrane while different pressures are being applied to the external ear canal
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Tympanometry
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bitemporal hemianopsia or "tunnel vision"
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Optic Chiasm lesion
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contralateral homonymous hemianopsia
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Optic Tract lesion
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contralateral homonymous superior quadrantanopsia
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Lesion in Meyer's loop
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contralateral homonymous hemianopsia
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Striate cortex lesion
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contralateral homonymous inferior quadrantanopsia
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Lesion in optic radiation
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contralateral horizontal
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horizontal
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contralateral anterior
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posterior
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contralateral posterior
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anterior
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helps coordinate eye movements involved in tracking moving targets or targets when the head is moving or both
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vestibular system
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helps provide a sense of balance and a sense of motion and position in space
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vestibular system
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is the most widespread sensory system in the CNS including all levels of the spinal cord thus extremely important in a physical examination
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vestibular system
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functions primarily on a nonconscious level but does have a conscious component
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vestibular system
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Rotation around Y axis
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Pitch
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Rotation around X axis
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Roll
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Rotation around Z axis
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Yaw
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When do hair cells respond the strongest?
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when bent towards the kinocilium
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The macular hair cells respond to what type of acceleration?
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linear acceleration such as one experiences in an accelerating or stopping car
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What is the most common example of linear acceleration?
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Gravity
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The ampullar hair cells respond to what type of acceleration?
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angular acceleration such as one experiences when the head turns or the whole body spins
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What vestibulospinal tract projects ipsilaterally to all spinal cord levels?
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Lateral
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What vestibulospinal tracts project bilaterally to cervical spinal cord levels only?
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Medial
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Bilateral fiber bundles are ventral to what ventricle?
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4th ventricle
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What pathway is concerned with discriminative touch, vibration, and conscious proprioception?
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Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway
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What order neurons are located in nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus in the caudal medulla in the Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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2nd order
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Fibers from fasciculus gracilis synapse in nucleus gracilis and fibers from fasciculus cuneatus synapse in nucleus cuneatus in what order neuron in the Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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2nd order
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Axons from neurons in nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus decussate as internal arcuate fibers and form the medial lemniscus in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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2nd order
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The medial lemniscus courses through the pons and midbrain to the thalamus in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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2nd order
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What order neurons are located in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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3rd order
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Ipsilateral loss of discriminative touch, vibration, and conscious proprioception
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Lesion below caudal medulla
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Contralateral loss of discriminative touch, vibration, and conscious proprioception
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Lesion above caudal medulla
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Lesion below caudal medulla
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Ipsilateral loss of discriminative touch, vibration, and conscious proprioception
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Lesion above caudal medulla
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Contralateral loss of discriminative touch, vibration, and conscious proprioception
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Central process courses in the medial bundle of a dorsal rootlet in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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1st order
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Central process enters the spinal cord, gives off collaterals, and then enters fasciculus gracilis or fasciculus cuneatus in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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1st order
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Fasciculus gracilis is somatotopically organized from the midline laterally (foot, leg, thigh, gluteal, lower trunk) in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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1st order
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Fasciculus cuneatus is somatotopically organized from the midline laterally (upper trunk, hand, forearm, arm, shoulder, neck) in what order neuron in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway?
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1st order
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Central process enters Lissauer’s tract where it divides into a main, ascending and descending branch in what order neuron in the spinothalamic tract?
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1st order
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Central process enters Lissauer’s tract where it divides into a main, ascending and descending branch in what order neuron in the spinothalamic tract?
|
1st order
|
|
|
Branches enter the dorsal horn and terminate in Laminae I, IV, and V in what order neuron in the spinothalamic tract?
|
1st order
|
|
|
What order neuron is located primarily in laminae I?
|
1st order spinothalamic tract
|
|
|
The axons of what order neuron decussate in the ventral white commissure over 1 to 2 segments?
|
1st order spinothalamic tract
|
|
|
Decussated axons ascend in the lateral and ventral white columns as the spinothalamic tracts in what order neuron?
|
1st order
|
|
|
Spinothalamic tracts course through the spinal cord, medulla, pons, and midbrain to the thalamus in what order neuron?
|
1st order
|
|
|
What order neuron is located in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus?
|
2nd order spinothalamic tract
|
|
|
Depending on the site and extent of the lesion there would be contralateral loss of pain, temperature, and crude touch where in the spinothalamic tract?
|
1 to 2 segments below the level of the lesion
|
|
|
Dorsal spinocerebellar,
Cuneocerebellar, and Ventral spinocerebellar tracts belong to what tract? |
Spinocerebellar tracts
|
|
|
What are the spinocerebellar tracts?
|
Dorsal spinocerebellar,
Cuneocerebellar, and Ventral spinocerebellar |
|
|
What is the role of the spinocerebellar tract?
|
Carry unconscious proprioception to the cerebellum
|
|
|
These pathways are very important in the regulation of muscle tone for the coordination of posture and control of proximal limb musculature
|
Spinocerebellar tracts
|
|
|
What tract carries unconscious proprioception for the trunk and lower extremity?
|
Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
The second order neurons for the dorsal spinocerebellar tract pathway are only found where?
|
in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke from T1-L3
|
|
|
A(alpha) fibers enter spinal cord through medial bundle and synapse with second order neurons in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke in what order neuron?
|
First order neurons from T1-L3 in the Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
Pseudounipolar neurons are in the dorsal root ganglia in what order neurons?
|
First order neurons from T1-L3
First order neurons below L3 |
|
|
A(alpha) fibers enter spinal cord through medial bundle and ascend in the fasciculus gracilis to synapse with neurons in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke in what order neurons?
|
First order neurons below L3 in the Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
What order neurons are located in the dorsal nucleus of Clarke in the intermediate gray matter from T1-L3?
|
Second order neurons in the Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
The axons ascend ipsilaterally as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract in what order neurons?
|
Second order neurons in the Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
The dorsal spinocerebellar tract courses through the inferior cerebellar peduncle to synapse in the cortex of the spinocerebellum in what order neuron?
|
Second order neurons in the Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
Carries unconscious proprioception primarily from the lower trunk and lower extremity?
|
Ventral spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
A(alpha) fibers enter spinal cord through medial bundle and synapse with neurons near the base of the dorsal horn in what order neurons?
|
1st order Ventral spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
Lesions in what tract are difficult to detect clinically due to bilateral input. Clinical signs are only present when lesion are fairly extensive
|
Ventral spinocerebellar tract
|
|
|
Lower motor neurons are controlled by what?
|
Local circuits within the brainstem and spinal cord.
Upper motor neurons located in the brainstem and cerebral cortex |
|
|
Lower motor neurons are located where?
|
Spinal cord:
Ventral horn Brainstem: Motor nuclei of cranial nerves 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 |
|
|
Where are upper motor neurons located in the cerebral cortex?
|
Primary motor cortex.
Premotor cortex (lateral premotor cortex) Supplemental motor cortex (medial premotor cortex) |
|
|
Where are upper motor neuron located in the brainstem nuclei?
|
Reticular formation
Vestibular nuclei Red nucleus Superior colliculus |
|
|
Where does the corticospinal tract terminate?
|
Cervical regions (55%)
Thoracic regions (20%) Lumbosacral regions (25%) Majority terminate on interneurons |
|
|
What motor area is involved with precise individual muscle contractions in the performance of movement (movement execution)?
|
Primary motor cortex
|
|
|
What motor area is involved with initiation of movement and the programming of movement (sequencing and coordination)?
|
Premotor cortex (lateral premotor cortex)
|
|
|
What motor area is involved with preparation for movement in advance of its initiation (planning)?
|
Supplemental motor cortex (medial premotor cortex)
|
|
|
What are the origins of the corticobulbar tract?
|
Primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex and supplemental motor cortex Frontal eye fields Primary somatosensory cortex Somatosensory association cortex |
|
|
What fibers from the corticobulbar tract terminate on the motor nuclei of cranial nerves that innervate skeletal muscle, except the extraocular muscles of the eye (5, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12)?
|
Fibers from motor areas
|
|
|
What fibers from the corticobulbar tract terminate on sensory nuclei of the brainstem (trigeminal nuclei, solitary nucleus, nucleus gracilis, and nucleus cuneatus) to modulate sensory input?
|
Fibers from sensory areas
|
|
|
What fibers from the corticobulbar tract terminate on the motor nuclei of cranial nerves the innervate the extraocular muscles of the eye (3, 4, and 6)?
|
Fibers from the frontal eye fields
|
|
|
What are the divisions of the cerebellum?
|
Vestibulocerebellum or flocculonodular lobe
Spinocerebellum or vermal and paravermal regions Cerebrocerebellum or lateral hemispheres |
|
|
What division of the cerebellum functions in postural control, maintenance of equilibrium, and the coordination of eye movements?
|
Vestibulocerebellum or flocculonodular lobe
|
|
|
What division of the cerebellum function in repetitive movements such as walking or scratching?
|
Spinocerebellum or vermal and paravermal regions
|
|
|
What division of the cerebellum function in the regulation of skilled and complex movements?
|
Cerebrocerebellum or lateral hemispheres
|
|
|
What is the function of the vestibulocerebellum or flocculonodular lobe?
|
functions in postural control, maintenance of equilibrium, and the coordination of eye movements
|
|
|
What is the function of the spinocerebellum or vermal and paravermal regions?
|
function in repetitive movements such as walking or scratching
|
|
|
What is the function of the cerebrocerebellum or lateral hemispheres?
|
function in the regulation of skilled and complex movements
|
|
|
What is the role of the cerebellum?
|
The cerebellum regulates movement and posture by adjusting the output of the upper motor neurons in the brainstem and cerebral cortex
|
|
|
What are the 3 layers of the cerebellar cortex?
|
Molecular layer (outer layer)
Purkinje cell layer (middle layer) Granule cell layer (inner layer) |
|
|
What is the role of purkinje cells, granule cells, and the deep cerebellar nuclei?
|
receive excitatory input from the mossy and climbing fibers
|
|
|
What is the role of local circuit neurons (Golgi cells, granule cells, stellate cells, and basket cells)?
|
provide inhibitory input to the Purkinje cells
|
|
|
What are the 4 pairs of cerebellar nuclei?
|
Fastigial
Globose Emboliform Dentate |
|
|
What are the three pairs of cerebellar peduncles?
|
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Middle cerebellar peduncles Inferior cerebellar peduncles |
|
|
What cerebellar peduncle connects the cerebellum with the midbrain?
|
Superior cerebellar peduncles
|
|
|
What cerebellar peduncle connects the cerebellum with the pons?
|
Middle cerebellar peduncles
|
|
|
What cerebellar peduncle connects the cerebellum with the medulla?
|
Inferior cerebellar peduncles
|
|
|
What do the superior cerebellar peduncles connect?
|
the cerebellum with the midbrain
|
|
|
What do the middle cerebellar peduncles connect?
|
the cerebellum with the pons
|
|
|
What do the inferior cerebellar peduncles connect?
|
the cerebellum with the medulla
|
|
|
What part of the spinocerebellar pathway coordinates the muscles involved with equilibrium?
|
Vestibulocerebellum
|
|
|
What part of the spinocerebellar pathway coordinates eye movements and postural control?
|
Vestibulocerebellum
|
|
|
What part of the spinocerebellar pathway regulates repetitive movements such as walking and scratching?
|
Spinocerebellum
|
|
|
What part of the spinocerebellar pathway is involved with the regulation of skilled and complex movements?
|
Cerebrocerebellum or pontocerebellum
|
|
|
What are the components of the basal ganglia?
|
Caudate nucleus
Putamen Globus pallidus Subthalamic nucleus Substantia nigra |
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is a C-shaped nucleus that follows the contour of the lateral ventricle?
|
Caudate nucleus
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is composed of a head, body, and tail?
|
Caudate nucleus
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is the largest nucleus?
|
Putamen
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is located between the external capsule and the globus pallidus?
|
Putamen
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is located between the putamen and the internal capsule?
|
Globus pallidus
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is divided into a medial (internal) and lateral (external) portion?
|
Globus pallidus
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is part of the diencephalon located ventral to the thalamus?
|
Subthalamic nucleus
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is located in the ventral region of the midbrain?
|
Substantia nigra
|
|
|
What component of the basal ganglia is divided into a pars compacta and a pars radiata?
|
Substantia nigra
|
|
|
Neurotransmitter is glutamate and it is excitatory
|
Corticostriate fibers
Subthalamopallidal fibers Corticonigral fibers |
|
|
Neurotransmitter is dopamine and it is inhibitory
|
Nigrostriate fibers
|
|
|
Neurotransmitter is GABA and it is inhibitory
|
Striopallidal fibers
Strionigral fibers Pallidothalamic fibers Pallidosubthalamic fibers |
|
|
Neurotransmitter is acetylcholine and it is excitatory
|
Intrastriate fibers
|
|
|
Afferent striatum connections
|
Corticostriate fibers
Thalamostriate fibers Nigrostriate fibers |
|
|
Efferent striatum connections
|
Striopallidal fibers
Strionigral fibers Intrastriate fibers |
|
|
Afferent pallidal connections
|
Striopalidal fibers
Subthalamopallidal fibers |
|
|
Efferent pallidal connections
|
Pallidothalamic fibers
Pallidosubthalamic fibers |
|
|
Afferent substantia nigra connections
|
Corticonigral fibers
|
|
|
Efferent substantia nigra connections
|
Nigrostriatal fibers
Fibers to the superior colliculus |
|
|
Afferent subthalamic nucleus connections
|
Pallidosubthalamic fibers
|
|
|
Efferents subthalamic nucleus connections
|
Subthalamopallidal fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is from widespread cortical areas but mostly from the frontal and parietal lobes?
|
Corticostriate fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is from the intralaminar thalamic nuclei?
|
Thalamostriate fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is from the pars compacta of the substantia nigra?
|
Nigrostriate fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is to the medial and lateral portions of the globus pallidus?
|
Striopallidal fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is to the pars compacta and pars reticulata of the substantia nigra?
|
Strionigral fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia are interneuron connections within the striatum?
|
Intrastriate fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is from the subthalamic nucleus to the medial and lateral portions of the globus pallidus?
|
Subthalamopallidal fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is to the subthalamic nucleus?
|
Pallidosubthalamic fibers
|
|
|
What striatum connection in the basal ganglia is fibers from many cortical areas but mostly from the frontal and parietal lobes?
|
Corticonigral fibers
|
|
|
Stimulation of this pathway results in a decrease in the inhibitory output to the thalamic nuclei which results in an increase in the excitation of the premotor cortex and supplemental motor cortex (production of involuntary movement).
|
Direct pathway
|
|
|
Stimulation of this pathway results in a increase in the inhibitory output to the thalamic nuclei which results in an decrease in the excitation of the premotor cortex and supplemental motor cortex (slowing or lack of movement).
|
Indirect pathway
|
|
|
Frontal pole
|
Lateral surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Precentral gyrus
|
Lateral surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Precentral sulcus
|
Lateral surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri
|
Lateral surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Superior and inferior frontal sulci
|
Lateral surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Olfactory sulcus
|
Inferior surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Olfactory bulb and tract
|
Inferior surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Gyrus rectus
|
Inferior surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Orbital gyri
|
Inferior surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Cingulate sulcus
|
Medial surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Part of paracentral lobule
|
Medial surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Superior frontal gyrus
|
Medial surface Frontal lobe
|
|
|
Postcentral gyrus
|
Parietal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Postcentral sulcus
|
Parietal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Intraparietal sulcus
|
Parietal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Superior parietal lobule
|
Parietal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Inferior parietal lobule
|
Parietal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Part of paracentral lobule
|
Parietal lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Marginal sulcus (marginal branch of cingulate sulcus)
|
Parietal lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Precuneus
|
Parietal lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Superior, middle, and inferior temporal gyri
|
Temporal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Superior and inferior temporal sulci
|
Temporal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Transverse temporal gyri (gyri of Heschl)
|
Temporal lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Inferior temporal gyrus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Occipitotemporal sulcus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Occipitotemporal gyrus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Collateral sulcus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Parahippocampal gyrus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Uncus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Hippocampal sulcus
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Hippocampal formation
|
Temporal lobe Inferior surface
|
|
|
Occipital pole
|
Occipital lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Lateral occipital gyri
|
Occipital lobe Lateral surface
|
|
|
Calcarine sulcus
|
Occipital lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Cuneus
|
Occipital lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Lingual gyrus
|
Occipital lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Collateral sulcus
|
Occipital lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
Occipitotemporal gyrus
|
Occipital lobe Medial surface
|
|
|
A cortical area covered by the frontal, parietal, and temporal opercula
Composed of short and long gyri |
Insula of Reil
|
|
|
Composed of a Supramarginal gyrus and a Angular gyrus
|
Inferior parietal lobule
|
|
|
Fibers from the trochlear nucleus (GSE) to the superior oblique muscle
|
Trochlear nerve
|
|
|
From the abducens nucleus to the lateral rectus muscle
|
Abducens nerve
|
|
|
From the trigeminal motor nucleus to the muscles of mastication
|
Trigeminal nerve
|
|
|
From the face and forehead via the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular divisions to the spinal trigeminal nucleus and mesencephalic nucleus
|
Trigeminal nerve
|
|
|
From the facial motor nucleus to the muscles of facial expression
|
Facial nerve
|
|
|
From the external auditory meatus and skin of the outer ear to the spinal trigeminal nucleus
|
Facial nerve
|
|
|
Taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue to the solitary nucleus
|
Facial nerve
|
|
|
From nucleus ambiguus to the stylopharyngeus muscle
|
Glossopharyngeal nerve
|
|
|
From skin of the outer ear to the spinal trigeminal nucleus
|
Glossopharyngeal nerve
|
|
|
Taste from the posterior one-third of the tongue to the solitary nucleus
|
Glossopharyngeal nerve
|
|
|
From nucleus ambiguus to muscles in the pharynx (swallowing) and larynx (speech)
|
Vagus nerve
|
|
|
From the meninges in the posterior cranial fossa and skin of the outer ear to the spinal trigeminal nucleus
|
Vagus nerve
|
|
|
From the heart, trachea, lungs, and the GI tract from the esophagus to the left colic flexure to the hypothalamus
|
Vagus nerve
|
|
|
Taste from the epiglottis region to the solitary nucleus
|
Vagus nerve
|
|
|
From the accessory nucleus to the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
|
Spinal Accessory nerve
|
|
|
To the intrinsic muscles of the tongue
|
Hypoglossal nerve
|
|
|
Most of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue (genioglossus, styloglossus, and hyoglossus)
|
Hypoglossal nerve
|
|
|
What enlargement is for innervation of the upper extremity (C5-T1)?
|
Cervical
|
|
|
What enlargement is for innervation of the lower extremity (L2-S3)?
|
Lumbar or lumbosacral
|
|
|
Number of cervical spinal nerves
|
8
|
|
|
Number of thoracic spinal nerves
|
12
|
|
|
Number of lumbar spinal nerves
|
5
|
|
|
Number of sacral spinal nerves
|
5
|
|
|
Number of coccygeal spinal nerves
|
1
|
|
|
Separates the two ventral white columns
|
Ventral (anterior) median sulcus or fissure
|
|
|
Separates the two dorsal white columns
|
Dorsal (posterior) median sulcus
|
|
|
Separates the dorsal and lateral white columns, and is where the dorsal rootlets enter
|
Dorsolateral (posterolateral) sulcus
|
|
|
Separates the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus (only present above T6)
|
Dorsal or posterior intermediate sulcus
|
|
|
Separates the lateral and ventral white columns, and is where the ventral rootlets emerge
|
Ventrolateral or anterolateral sulcus
|
|
|
The dorsal and ventral roots from L2 and below form what?
|
Cauda equina
|
|
|
Innervate the deep muscles of the back and the skin overlying them
|
Dorsal rami
|
|
|
Innervate the muscles of the superficial back, trunk, extremities, and neck and the skin of these regions
|
Ventral rami
|
|
|
Extends the entire length of the spinal cord, and receives information from the dorsal rootlets
|
Dorsal horn or dorsal gray column
|
|
|
Only found from T1- L2 or L3
|
Lateral horn of gray matter
|
|
|
Connect the gray matter from one side to the other and found throughout the spinal cord
|
Dorsal and ventral gray commissures
|
|
|
Located between the commisures, dorsal horn, ventral horn, and lateral horn; and found throughout the spinal cord
|
Intermediate zone
|
|
|
Located in the ventral and lateral horns
|
Root neurons
|
|
|
Their axons leave the spinal cord through the ventral rootlets and terminate outside the CNS
|
Root neurons
|
|
|
Somatic motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscle fibers (extrafusal)
|
Alpha motor neurons (ventral horn cells or lower motor neurons)
|
|
|
Somatic motor neurons that innervate intrafusal skeletal muscle fibers of a muscle spindle
|
Gamma motor neurons
|
|
|
Located in the intermediolateral nucleus and sacral autonomic nucleus
|
Preganglionic autonomic neurons (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
|
|
|
Visceral motor neurons that innervate smooth and cardiac muscle
|
Preganglionic autonomic neurons (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
|
|
|
Found primarily in the dorsal horn and intermediate zone
|
Column neurons
|
|
|
Their axons terminate within the CNS
|
Column neurons
|
|
|
Participate in the formation of ascending sensory pathways
|
Tract neurons
|
|
|
Their axons remain on the same side and same segment of the spinal cord
|
Intrasegmental interneurons
|
|
|
Their axons ascend and descend to neighboring segments of the spinal cord
|
Intersegmental interneurons
|
|
|
Coordination between spinal cord segments, and coordination between sides of the spinal cord
|
Interneurons
|
|
|
Their axons proceed to the other side of the spinal cord
|
Commissural interneurons
|
|
|
Laminae that form the dorsal horn
|
I-VI
|
|
|
Lamina that forms the intermediate zone
|
VII
|
|
|
Laminae that form the ventral horn
|
VIII and IX
|
|
|
Lamina that forms the gray commissures
|
X
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that project from the spinal cord to the thalamus and then to the cerebral cortex
|
Ascending tracts
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that project from the spinal cord to the cerebellum
|
Ascending tracts
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that project from the spinal cord to certain brainstem nuclei
|
Ascending tracts
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that project from the cerebral cortex to brainstem nuclei and to the spinal cord.
|
Descending tract
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that project from certain brainstem nuclei to the spinal cord
|
Descending tract
|
|
|
Tracts of white matter that interconnect spinal cord levels
|
Propriospinal tracts
|
|
|
Contain ascending mechanosensory information which are part of the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway
|
Dorsal column of white matter
|
|
|
Contains ascending pain and temperature information
|
Lateral column of white matter
Ventral column of white matter |
|
|
Contain ascending unconscious proprioceptive information
|
Lateral column of white matter
|
|
|
Contains descending motor information
|
Descending tracts: Lateral column
and Ventral column |
|
|
Which spinal cord level is the largest?
|
Cervical
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level contains the most white matter?
|
Cervical
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has the ventral horn enlarged for innervation of the upper extremities?
|
Cervical
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has a small amount of gray matter?
|
Thoracic
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has the lateral horn present?
|
Thoracic
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has a large amount of gray matter?
|
Lumbar
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has the ventral horn enlarged for innervation of the lower extremities?
|
Lumbar
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has more gray matter than white matter?
|
Sacral
|
|
|
Which spinal cord level has the ventral horn enlarged in the upper segments for innervation of the lower extremities?
|
Sacral
|
|
|
Arterial supply to the brain is from what arteries?
|
from the paired internal carotid arteries and the paired vertebral arteries
|
|
|
Branches from the subclavian arteries
|
Vertebral arteries
|
|
|
Give off branches and then fuse to form the basilar artery
|
Vertebral arteries
|
|
|
Course through the transverse foramen's of the upper six cervical vertebrae
|
Vertebral arteries
|
|
|
Course through the foramen magnum and pierce the dura mater and arachnoid mater to lie on the sides of the medulla
|
Vertebral arteries
|
|
|
Formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries
|
Basilar artery
|
|
|
Courses on the ventral (basilar) surface of the pons
|
Basilar artery
|
|
|
Gives off branches and then divides into posterior cerebral arteries
|
Basilar artery
|
|
|
Branches of the vertebral arteries
|
Posterior spinal arteries
Posterior inferior cerebellar arteries Anterior spinal arteries Medullary arteries |
|
|
Largest vascular supply to the cerebellum
|
Posterior inferior cerebellar arteries
|
|
|
Branches of the basilar artery
|
Anterior inferior cerebellar arteries
Pontine arteries Superior cerebellar arteries Posterior cerebral arteries |
|
|
Branches of the common carotid arteries
|
Internal carotid arteries
|
|
|
Course through the carotid canals and enter the middle cranial fossa adjacent to the sella turcica
|
Internal carotid arteries
|
|
|
Provide an anastomotic connection between the internal carotid and the posterior cerebral arteries
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Posterior communicating arteries
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To the lateral surface of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
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Middle cerebral arteries
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To the medial and superior surfaces of the frontal and parietal lobes
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Anterior cerebral arteries
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What arteries are joined by the anterior communicating artery?
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Anterior cerebral arteries
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Arteries of the Cerebral arterial circle or Circle of Willis
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Anterior communicating arteries
Anterior cerebral arteries Internal carotid arteries Posterior communicating arteries Posterior cerebral arteries Basilar artery |
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It joins the internal carotid and vertebral arteries together, forming a major anastomotic connection between them
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Cerebral arterial circle or Circle of Willis
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They vascularize the ventral white column, lateral white column, and gray matter except for the dorsal horns
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Anterior spinal arteries
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They vascularize the dorsal white columns and the dorsal horn of the gray matter
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Posterior spinal arteries
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largest of the radicular arteries
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The great radicular artery (artery of Adamkiewicz)
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provides the majority of the vascular supply to the lumbosacral region of the spinal cord
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Radicular arteries
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