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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the nervous tissue called that supports and nourishes neurons?
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neuroglia
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What are the three types of neuroglial cells?
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astrocytes, microglia, and oligodentrocytes
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What is another term for oligodendrocytes?
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Schwann cells
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What is the function of astrocytes?
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These star-shaped neuroglial cells provide nutrients to neurons.
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What is the function of the neuroglial cells called microglia?
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remove foreign substances (microglia are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS).
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What is the function of Schwann cells?
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synthesis of myelin that insulates neurons and increases conduction speed
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What are the chemicals called that allow neurons to communicate with each other?
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neurotransmitters
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What are the neurotransmitters called that are produced as a result of vigorous exercise that give you a feeling of well-being?
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endorphins ( this what gives "runner's high")
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What is the sac called surrounding the heart?
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pericardium
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What is pericarditis?
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inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart (-itis means inflammation)
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List four groups of organisms that have a nerve net, rather than a full-blown nervous system like humans.
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1. corals
2. box jellies 3. jellyfish 4. sea anemones |
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Name 3 common ocean organism that has radial nerves, rather than a full-blown nervous system like humans.
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1. sea stars
2. sea urchins 3. sea cucumbers |
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What scientific taxon of animals have nerve ganglia, rather than a full-blown nervous system like humans.
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Platyhelminthes (free-living flat worms)
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What is meant by the term cephalization?
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Cephalization is an evolutionary trend, whereby nervous tissue, over many generations, becomes concentrated toward one end of an organism. This process eventually produces a head region with sensory organs.
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What scientific taxon of animals marks the beginning of cephalization in the evolution of animals.
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Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
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Neuroglia cells of the nervous system have what three functions?
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1. support and nourish neurons
2. repair the brain after injury 3. attack invading bacteria |
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The myelin sheath are a type of neuroglia called Schwann cells. What is their function?
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The myelin coating of the axon aids in the efficient transmission of a nerve impulse, much like the insulation on electrical wires prevents electricity from scattering.
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Name the three types of neurons.
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1. sensory (unipolar)
2. interneurons (bipolar) 3. motor neurons (multipolar) |
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Where is the node of Ranvier?
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between Schwann cells which extend along an axon on a neuron
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What is the difference between resting potential and action potential in neurons?
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When a neuron is not transmitting a signal is it said to be at its resting potential. An action potential occurs when a signal is being transmitted.
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Where is a synaptic cleft?
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A synaptic cleft separates two neurons at their presynaptic and postsynaptic spaces.
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In nerve transmission of signals along neurons which is more common - electrical synapse or chemical synapse?
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chemical (slower transmission)
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Comparing electrical and chemical synapses, which type would most likely be present in neural pathways involving fight and flight responses?
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electrical because they are faster
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Neurotransmitters, at a synaptic cleft, are received by what on the postsynaptic cells on the opposite side of the synaptic cleft?
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receptors
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What is the small space between neurons called?
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synapse (or synaptic cleft)
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Where is a synaptic cleft?
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A synaptic cleft separates two neurons at their presynaptic and postsynaptic spaces.
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In nerve transmission of signals along neurons which is more common - electrical synapse or chemical synapse?
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chemical (slower transmission)
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Comparing electrical and chemical synapses, which type would most likely be present in neural pathways involving fight and flight responses?
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electrical because they are faster
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Neurotransmitters, at a synaptic cleft, are received by what on the postsynaptic cells on the opposite side of the synaptic cleft?
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receptors
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What is the small space between neurons called?
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synapse (or synaptic cleft)
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Name 5 common neurotransmitters.
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1. norepinephrine
2. endorphins 3. serotonin 4. Acetylcholine 5. dopamine |
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine involved with?
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1. activation of motor neurons
2. attention and arousal 3. aid in memory |
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter dopamine involved with?
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1. control of voluntary movement
2. feelings of pleasure *This is the transmitter at lower levels in Parkinson's disease. |
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter norepinephrine involved with?
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mood adjustment and arousal
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter serotonin involved with?
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regulation of sleep/wakefulness, eating, and aggression
*Abnormal levels can cause depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. |
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter endorphins involved with?
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1. pain relief
2. pleasurable emotions |
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What types of things is the neurotransmitter endorphins involved with?
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1. pain relief
2. pleasurable emotions |
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What are the three parts of the brainstem?
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1. medulla oblongata
2. pons 3. midbrain |
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What does the brainstem do?
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It connects with spinal cord, innervates face & neck via cranial nerves, helps regulate breathing and heart rate, and maintain sleep cycle.
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What is the basic function of the cerebellum?
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integration of sensory perception, coordinate muscular control (equilibrium, posture, motor learning (sports)
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What are four things done by the thalamus?
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1. relays sensations
2. helps regulate consciousness 3. sleep patterns 4. maintain alertness |
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What is the basic function of the hypothalamus?
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It is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary (master gland)
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About what size is the hypothalamus?
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about the size of an almond
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What are the two lobes of the pituitary?
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anterior and posterior
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What are the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex?
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right and left
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What is the function of the corpus callosum?
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It connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
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What are the functions of the basal ganglia?
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motor control and learning
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What is the function of the hippocampus?
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longterm memory and spacial navigation
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What is the function of the amygdala?
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memory and emotional reactions
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What is the function of the reticular formation?
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awakening, and sleep cycles
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Name the four major lobes of the cerebellum.
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1. frontal lobe
2. parietal lobe 3. temporal lobe 4. occipital lobe |
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What is different about a reflex signal compared to a non-reflex signal?
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In reflex signals the message initiating a response does not have to first be processed by the brain. It happens automatically, and then the brain becomes "conscious" of the event.
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What is the basic function of the PNS - peripheral nervous system?
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It connects the CNS (central nervous system) to parts of the body lying outside the CNS.
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What are the three tissues that make up the PNS?
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1. cranial nerves
2. spinal nerves 3. ganglia |
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What are the two major divisions of the PNS?
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1. somatic nervous system
2. autonomic nervous system |
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Are sensory neurons afferent or efferent?
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Afferent - because they conduct impulses toward the CNS
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Are motor neurons afferent or efferent?
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Efferent - because they conduct impulses aways from the CNS
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What is the link between a sensory and motor neuron called?
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interneuron
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List six things controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
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1. heart rate
2. digestion 3. respiration rate 4. salivation 5. perspiration 6. diameter of pupils of the eyes |
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What are those actions called that require very rapid response in the autonomic nervous system?
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sympathetic (fight or flight)
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What are those actions called that do not require rapid response in the autonomic nervous system?
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parasympathetic (rest & digest)
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What are the five senses?
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1. sight
2. hearing 3. taste 4. touch |
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What are the five types of receptors for senses?
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1. mechanoreceptors
2. thermoreceptors 3. photoreceptors 4. chemoreceptors 5. nociceptors (pain) |
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To what do mechanoreceptors respond?
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Mechanoreceptors respond to a shape change is the receptor or of nearby cells.
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To what do thermoreceptors respond?
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temperature change
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To what do photoreceptors respond?
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light
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To what do chemoreceptors respond?
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chemical stimuli
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To what do nociceptors respond?
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tissue damage or extreme temperatures
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What are examples of general (somatic) sense receptors?
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touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, pain, body and limb position These are found all over the body.
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What are examples of special senses?
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sight, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium These senses are all in the head.
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How would you define perception?
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Perception is our interpretation of a sensation.
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What is sensory adaptation?
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When a stimulus continues over a regular span of time, perception is turned down. This is sensory adaptation.
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What is the general purpose of those sensors in the muscle spindles?
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These sense receptors monitor muscle stretching to help maintain muscle tone. This allows us to maintain a posture. Portions of most muscles are randomly stimulated to maintain constant tension without fatiguing individual muscle cells.
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What would cause of touch receptor to fire?
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These receptors fire signals when they are deformed by pressure.
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Where are touch receptors least abundant on the human body?
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n the back and abdomen
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To what does the "receptive field" refer?
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to an area monitored by a sensory neuron
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Where are Merkel disks found and what do they do?
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Merkel disks are found at the base of the epidermis and sense very light pressure on the skin.
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How do Merkel disks and Meissner's corpuscles differ?
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Merkel disks are un-encapsulated, and sense very light pressure on the skin. Meissner's corpuscles are encapsulated and detect slightly less sensitive touch and vibrations.
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What are the names of the two touch receptors found in the dermis of skin that sense hard pressure on the skin?
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Ruffini corpuscles, and Pacinian corpuscles
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What is the basic difference between Ruffini and Pacinian corpuscles?
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Ruffini corpuscles don't adapt, while Pacinian corpuscles adapt very quickly.
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What is referred pain?
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This is pain that is felt in a region of the body where the damage causing the pain has not really occurred.
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Give an example of referred pain which is typical of heart damage.
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Heart damage is often referred to the shoulder or arm where the pain is felt.
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What are gustatory receptors?
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taste receptors
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Where are gustatory receptors found?
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top of tongue and around mouth and throat
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What are the small protrusions seen on the tongue?
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papillae
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A tongue papilla has about how many taste buds?
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100-200
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The taste hairs located on the top of taste buds do what?
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They have receptors that bind to tastants - chemical found in foods.
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When a tastant binds to a chemical found in food what happens?
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It causes the release of a neurotransmitter.
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What happens in order for us to detect a flavor?
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Flavor is a very complex response affected by neurotransmitter release from taste cells which trigger sensory neurons from as many as five possible tastant qualities; which along with odor sensations produce the perception of favor.
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What is the sense of olfaction?
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smell
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Where are the olfactory receptors located?
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in two area on the roof of the nasal passage
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Give an example of neurons that are regenerated or replaced every 60 days in the nasal passage?
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olfactory receptors
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Where is the olfactory bulb?
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It is located above the bone of the hard palate and is communicated with by tendrils from the olfactory receptors cells that are protruding down into the nasal passage to detect odorants.
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Bloodhounds are how many times more sensitive to odors and humans?
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100,000,000 times
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What are pheromones?
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Species-specific scents used as a form of communication between animals.
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What is the vomeronasal organ used for in rodents?
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to detect pheromones
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Do human produce hormones?
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Probably human do; however no definitive studies have been able to isolate human pheromones yet.
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The human ear has two sets of mechanoreceptors. What do they each do?
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One set detects vibrations and produces sound, the others provide information as to the position of the head helping us maintain balance.
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What are the two characteristics of individual sound waves?
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They each have a frequency (the number of high to low points (cycles/second), and the amplitude - the size of the waves.
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What are the three ossicles - from nearest the eardrum to the middle ear.
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malleus (hammer), incus, and stapes
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What is located directly beneath the stapes in the middle ear?
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the oval window
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In which part of the ear would one find the semicircular canals?
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inner ear
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What is the medical term for motion sickness?
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vertigo
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Why do some people experience vertigo when trying to read in a car that is moving.
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The brain senses acceleration, yet the book is still. This causes a confusion of signals by the brain resulting in motion sickness - vertigo.
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What is the nanometer frequency of visible light?
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approximately 400 to 700 nm
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What are the longest wavelengths of light?
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radio waves - which are one meter from peak to peak
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What is the white of the eye called?
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sclera
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What is the fluid called that is found between the cornea and the lens?
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aqueous humor
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What is the fluid in the main part of the eye called?
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vitreous humor
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What part of the eye controls the amount of light entering the eye?
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iris which controls the diameter of the pupil of the eye
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What nerve carries signals from the eyes to the brain?
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optic nerves
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What is the correct name for the focal point at the back interior of the eye?
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fovea
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Aqueous humor constantly is being drained from the eye. If this drainage is slowed, what is this condition called?
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glaucoma (increased pressure in the eye)
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What is the other word for myopia?
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nearsighted
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What is the other word for hyperopia?
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farsighted
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What causes astigmatism?
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Focus is not clear due to the cornea being misshaped, causing light to scatter.
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What causes cataracts?
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Proteins inside the lens of the eye causes cloudiness of the lens, because these proteins become distorted.
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What structures in the eye are responsible for color vision?
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rods and cones
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What is the approximate number of rod and cones in the human eye?
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120 million rods, and 6 million cones
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What causes macular degeneration?
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tissue is the retina breaks down, leaving scar tissue which causes gaps in the visual field
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What are three risk factors for macular degeneration?
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diabetes, high blood pressure, and family history
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What is another general term for the ovaries and testes?
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gonads
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