Neroscience Part 1

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Origin of modern neuroscience:

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Neuron doctrine:
brain composed of independent cells
signal transmitted from cell to cell across synapses

Proposed by Santiago Cajal(Important)
Brain composed of separate neurons and other cells that are independent
Information is transmitted across tiny synapses

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Unipolar neurons –

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a single extension that branches in two directions, forming a receptive pole and an output zone

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Bipolar neurons

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Bipolar neurons – one axon, one dendrite- usually sensorycommon type

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Multipolar neurons

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Multipolar neurons – one axon, many dendrites – most

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3 kinds of neurons

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sensory, motor, interneuron

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sensory neurons

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Sensory neurons respond to environmental stimuli, such as light, odor, or touch
carry information from body and world to brain and spinal cord

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Motoneurons (motor neurons)

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contact muscles or glands
conducts messages from brain and spinal cord to muscles and organs ( multipolar)

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Interneurons

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receive input from and send input to other neurons (most neurons in CNS), conducts information between neurons in same area (multipolar-brain and spinal cord)

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Astrocytes

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Most numerous glial cell in brain
Fill spaces between neurons for support
Regulate composition of the extracellular space
Most abundant of all glial cells!

Star like cell that serves as mediator to blood vessels.

Fill spaces between neurons for support

Regulate extracelluar space and respond to brain injury

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oligodendrocytes

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Occurs only in CNS. Inside brain and spinal chord

Each Oligodendrocyte wraps several axons

Forms segments of myelin sheath

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schwann cells

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Wraps axons with myelin sheaths OUTSIDE OF CNS!

Each Swann cell wraps ONE AXON!

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myelin

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myelin is produced in the brain and spinal cord by oligodendrocytes and in the rest of the body by schwann cells

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microglia

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phagocytes that clean up debris from dying neurons and glia

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ependymal cells

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line ventricles,secrete and absorb cerebral spinal fluid, guide embyronic cells during development

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Glial cells

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1. oligodendrocytes
2.astrocytes
3.microglia
4.ependymal cells

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3 Kinds of Neurons

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1. sensory
2. motorneurons
3.interneurons

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AIDS encephalitis

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Brain damage in AIDS patient from neurotoxins such as glutamate and NO (nitric oxide) produced by viral-activated monocytes and microglia

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Dendritic spines -

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studs to increase surface area

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Neural plasticity

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In dendritic spines allow their number and structure to be altered by EXPERIENCE.

Neuroplasticity allows the neurons (nerve cells) in the brain to compensate for injury and disease

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central nervous system CNS

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brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system

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cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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spinal nerves

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1. dorsal(back) root-carries sensory information from body to spinal cord
2. ventral(front)root-carries motor information from spinal cord to muscles

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dorsal ( back) root

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carries sensory information from body to spinal cord

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ventral( front) root

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carries motor information from spinal cord to muscles

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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controls smooth muscles (stomach, blood, vessels,etc) the glands and the heart and other organs

1. sympathetic nervous system-activates the body in ways that help it cope with stress and emergencies

2. parasympathetic nervous system-slows the activity of most organs to conserve energy, activates digestion

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The autonomic nervous system (autonomic ganglia)

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Preganglionic neurons (blue) from CNS to autonomic ganglia
Postganglionic neurons (red) from autonomic ganglia to targets in the body
Preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord – innervate sympathetic chain
Sympathetic activation prepares the body for action;
Parasympathetic activation rests and digests

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preganglionic neurons

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CNS to autonomic ganglia-innervate sympathetic chains

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postganglionic neurons

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from autonomic ganglia to target area in the body

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ANS

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Sympathetic activates and prepares body for action. Arises from thoracic and lumbar spinal chord

Parasympathtic- activation rests and digests. Arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal chord

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Medial – toward the middle Lateral – toward the side
Ipsilateral – same side Contralateral – opposite side

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Anterior – head end Posterior – tail end
Proximal – near center Distal – toward periphery
Dorsal – toward the back Ventral – toward the belly

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Afferent

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– carries information into a region of interest (usually sensory)

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Efferent

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– carries information away from a region of interest (usually motor)

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Coronal

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– separates brain from front to back. Resembles a butterfly

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Sagittal (midsagittal)

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– slices the brain down the midline so you can see what’s on each half

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Horizontal –

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separates brain from top to bottom

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White matter

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–composed of axon bundles. White because myelin sheaths (white fatty tissue) cover the axons

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Gray matter

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– composed of clusters of cell bodies, have dark gray appearance

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Reticular formation

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Reticular formation –sleep and arousal, temperature control, motor control

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basal ganglia

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motor control, planning

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thalamus

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receives information from all the sensory systems except olfaction and relays it to the respective cortical projection areas

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hypothalamus

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a smaller stucture, inferior to the thalamus, plays a major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviors such as eating drinking, and sexual activity

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corpus callosum

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a dense band of fibers that carry information between the hemisphers

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Midbrain:

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Consists of reticular formation which is involved in sleep and arousal, temperature, control and motor control

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Pons:

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contains motor and sensory nuclei to the face

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Medulla

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(Important)- regulate breathing, control of neck and tongue muscles

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Cerebellum-

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Balance, motor coordination and learning

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Pons –

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contains motor and sensory nuclei to the face

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Medulla -

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transition of brain to spinal cord

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meninges

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3
1. duramater-lining the skull
2. arachnoid mater-contains blood vessels, subarachnoid space-filled with CSF
3.pia mater-covers the brain

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subdural hematoma

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collection of blood under the dura mater

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CSF circulation

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Lateral ventricles  interventricular foramen  third ventricle  Cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius)  fourth ventricle  rest of brain using the subarachnoid space
Reabsorbed by the arachnoid granulations into the sinuses

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blood supply to the brain

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Anterior CA – medial frontal lobes, superior medial parietal lobes
Middle CA – lateral frontal and parietal lobes, superior/anterior temporal lobe
Posterior CA – inferior/posterior temporal lobe and occipital lobe

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Anterior Cerebral Artery

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Anterior CA – medial frontal lobes, superior medial parietal lobes

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Middle Cerbral Artery

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Middle CA – lateral frontal and parietal lobes, superior/anterior temporal lobe

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Posterior Cerebral Artery

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Posterior CA – inferior/posterior temporal lobe and occipital lobe

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Positron emission tomography (PET)

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Images of brain activity
Uses radioactive chemicals injected into the bloodstream and maps their destination by their emissions
Identifies which brain regions contribute to specific functions
‘functional CT’

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Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)

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X-ray absorption maps tissue density

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI –

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high-res images in 3 steps:
Strong magnets cause protons in brain tissue to line up parallel
A pulse of radio waves knocks protons over
Protons reconfigure, emitting radio waves that differ by tissue density

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Functional MRI

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Functional MRI (fMRI) detects changes in brain metabolism, like oxygen use, in active brain areas
fMRI can show how networks of brain structures collaborate

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NEUROIMAGING

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CAT – structure (tissue density)
MRI – structure (tissue density  safer)
fMRI – function (changes in metabolism)
PET – function (uses radioactive chemicals)

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Nucleus

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- DNA in chromosomes, mRNA transcribed from DNA, gene expression

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RER - rough endoplasmic reticulum

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arrays of membranes with ribosomes, site of protein synthesis for membrane-associated proteins

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SER - smooth endoplasmic

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reticulum, regulates composition of cytoplasm

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Golgi Apparatus

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- Stacks of flat membrane compartments,
packages products for shipment in cell

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Lipid Bilayer

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- surrounds cell and separates cytoplasm from extracellular fluid – charge separator!

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Intrinsic Proteins

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Intrinsic Proteins - receptors, ion channels, makes neurons have necessary properties for signaling

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Axoplasmic transport:

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Anterograde (kinesin) vs. retrograde (dynein)

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cytoskeleton

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Microtubules - 20nm thick-walled tubes, spirals of tubulin, tracks for movement within neuron

Neurofilaments - 10nm twisted protein cables, static structures

Microfilaments - 5nm double helix of actin, dynamic structures, associated with cell membrane

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axoplasmic transport

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material is moved from soma to terminals along microtubules by anterograde transport using kinesin as the enabling protein;

material is moved from terminals to soma by retrograde transport using dynein as the enabling protein.

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Pachygyria

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(from the Greek "pachy" meaning "thick" or "fat" gyri) is a congenital malformation of the cerebral hemisphere. It results in unusually thick convolutions of the cerebral cortex.

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Lowes syndrome

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cataracts, cant see retina, x-linked reccessive disorder

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lissencephaly

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smooth brain, defective neural migration 12-24 weeks gestation, lack of brain folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

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MELAS syndrome:

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Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke
Mitochondrial energy failure

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Down syndrome

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(Trisomy 21)

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Down Syndrome

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(Trisomy 21)