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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What two types of receptors does ACh act on?
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Muscarinic & Nicotinic
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What does ACh do in the peripheral nervous system?
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Causes muscles to contract
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Myasthenia gravis attacks what?
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ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions resulting in profound weakness
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What role does ACh play in the central nervous system?
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It is involved with REM sleep, learning and memory as well as the sleep-wake cycle.
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Degeneration of ACh cells in the entorhinal cortex and other areas that associate directly with the hippocampus are thought to underlie the memory deficits causing what disorder?
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Alzheimer's Dementia
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What functions are mediated by dopamine? Name 5
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Mood, Memory, Movement
Personality, Sleep |
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It is thought excessive dopamine in the caudate nucleus causes what?
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Tourette's Disorder
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The Catecholamine Hypothesis predicts what?
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Depression is related to low levels of Norepinephrine
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Serotonin usually exerts an inhibitory or excitatory effect?
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Inhibitory
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Elevated levels of what are thought to contribute to Schizophrenia, Autistic Disorder and food restriction in Anorexia?
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Serotonin
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Low levels of what are thought to play a role in aggression, depression, suicide Bulimia Nervosa, PTSD and OCD?
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Serotonin
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GABA is an inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter?
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Inhibitory
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What neurotransmitter is involved with eating,seizure, anxiety, motor control vision and sleep?
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GABA
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Degeneration of cells that produce GABA in the basal ganglia causes what?
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Huntington's disease
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Is Glutamate an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter?
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Excitatory
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What neurotransmitter plays a role in memory and learning, especially Long-term Potentiation?
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Glutamate
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Endorphins (endogenous morphines), are inhibitory neuromodulators that act by doing what?
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Lowering sensitivity of the postsynaptic receptors.
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How many pairs of cranial nerves are there that make up the PNS?
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12
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How many sets of sensory and motor nerves connect with the spinal cord?
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31
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What are the 5 stages of brain development?
Hint: PMDMS |
Proliferation
Migration Differentation (grow axons & dendrites) Myelination Synaptogensis |
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What three structures compose the hindbrain?
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Pons
Medulla Cerebellum |
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What brain structure integrates movement between the right and left sides of the brain?
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Pons
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What structure is involved with the initiation of motor movement?
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Basal Ganglia
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What structure is involved with the timing and coordination of movements as well as the correction of movement?
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Cerebellum
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What aspect of cognitive functioning has been attributed to the cerebellum?
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Set shifting
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Ataxia usually involves what three symptoms and is often associated to damage of what brain structure?
(similar to alcohol intoxication) |
Slurred speech
Severe tremors Loss of balance Damage to the Cerebellum |
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What three structures make up the Midbrain?
Hint: SSR |
Superior and Inferior Colliculi
(routes for visual and auditory info) Substantia Nigra (motor activity and reward system) Reticular Formation (contains RAS, involves respiration, vomitting, posture, REM sleep, locomotion) |
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What four structures are found in the Forebrain?
(subcortical structures) Hint: BaL HaT |
Basal Ganglia
Limbic System Hypothalamus Thalamus |
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What does the Thalamus do?
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Relay Station for sensory info
Motor Activity Language Memory |
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Loss of neurons in this area causes Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
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Thalamus
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What brain structure is involved with hunger, thirst, sex, sleep and body temperature?
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Hypothalamus
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Uncontrollable laughter or intense rage can occur from damage to what area of the brain?
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Hypothalamus
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The Suprachaismatic Nucleus is located in the Hypothalamus and mediates what?
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Sleep-wake cycle
Circadian Rhythms |
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Mammillary bodies are involved in memory and learning and are located within what structure?
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Hypothalamus
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What four structures compose the Basal Ganglia?
(Hint: C PiGS) |
Caudate Nucleus
Putamen Globus Pallidus Substantia Nigra |
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What structure is responsible for coordinating and planning motor movement as well as its direction and intensity?
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Basal Ganglia
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Damage to what structure results in the mask-like face of Parkinson's Dementia because this area is responsible for smiling when happy, frowning when sad, etc.
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Basal Ganglia
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ADHD has been linked to what three brain structures?
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Caudate Nucleus
Globus Pallidus Prefrontal Cortex |
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Three structures including the amygdala, hippocampus and cingulate cortex are part of what larger brain system?
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Limbic System
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What functions does the Limbic System serve?
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Mainly the regulation of emotion.
Also implicated with memory |
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The Amygdala is responsible for what?
Damage to this area results in what? |
Attaching emotion to memories
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome |
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What behaviors are seen with Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?
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Hyperorality
Hypersexuality Docility Reduced Fear and Aggression Altered dietary habits |
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What does the Cingulate Cortex do?
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It surrounds the corpus callosum and is involved with attention, emotion and the experience of pain
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The mental representation of movement is controlled in what area of the brain?
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The SAM or Supplemental Motor Area
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What loss of function characterizes dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome and in this case, what area of the brain has been damaged?
Hint: JIPO |
Impaired judgment, insight, planning and organization
Dorsolateral area |
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Orbitofrontal Disinhibition Syndrome causes what?
Hint: I DIE (Pseudopsychopathy) |
Impulse control problems
Distractibility Impaired social insight Emotional lability |
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Damage to the mediofrontal area of the brain causes what syndrome and what is it characterized by?
Hint: Pseudodepression |
Mesial frontal apathetic syndrome
Characterized by impaired spontaneity, reduced emotional reactions, diminished motor behavioral and verbal output, sensory loss and lower extremity weakness. |
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What structure governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception and gustation?
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Somatosensory Cortex
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Damage this this area can cause apraxia, tactile agnosia, asomatognosia, anosognosia, contralateral neglect, ideational apraxia or Gerstmann'sSyndrome
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The Parietal Lobe
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What is Gerstmann's Syndrome and what causes it?
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Finger agnosia, R-L confusio, agraphia and acalculia.
Caused by damage to the parietal lobe |
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What is Apraxia?
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Inability to perform skilled motor movements with intact motor functioning.
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In which lobe is Wernicke's area located?
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Temporal
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Prosopagnosia occurs with damage to the junction of what areas?
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Temporal-Parietal-Occipital
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What is apperceptive visual agnosia?
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Inability to perceive objects despite good visual acuity
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What is associative visual agnosia?
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Inability to recognize an object as a result of impaired memory or inability to access relevant semantic knowledge
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Which is the preferred theory to explain color vision. Is it the Young-Helmholtz theory or Opponenet-Process theory?
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Neither explain color vision well by themselves so an understanding of color vision uses both theories.
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What is a Dermatome?
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An area of the body innervated by a dorsal root nerve.
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Does pain sensation seem to increase or decrease with age?
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Decrease
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The Gate Control Theory of Pain accounts for what type of pain reduction?
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Using heat or cold, mental distraction or massage to lessen pain since only a certain amount of stimulation can be processed at one time.
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What is Synesthesia?
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A rare condition in which stimulation of one sense triggers another sense. For example, a person can hear a color or taste a sound.
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What does the acronym HERA stand for in regard to memory function?
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Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry.
It means encoding occurs in the left hemisphere while retrieval occurs in the right hemisphere, specifically the right frontal cortex. |
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Describe the function of the Temporal Lobes with memory, in addition to the difference between the Right and Left cortex.
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Both are involved with encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memories.
Right: Nonverbal memory Left: Verbal memory |
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What is the role of the Hippocampus in memory?
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Transferring of information from short-term to long-term memory, but those memories are stored elsewhere.
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What is the role of the Amygdala in memory?
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Attaching emotional significance to memory.
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What is the role of the Prefrontal Cortex in memory?
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Working Memory (dorsolateral area)
False recognition, prospective and constructive memories |
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What is the role of the Thalamus in memory?
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Processing incoming information and transferring it to the cortex. Damage to this area from alcohol causes Korsakoff's Syndrome
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What is the role of the Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum and Motor Cortex in memory?
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They play a role in Procedural Memory (sensorimotor skills, unintentional memory)
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What is Long-Term Potentiation?
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An increase in receptivity of the post-synaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynaptic neuron that can last up to weeks after a period of high-intensity stimulation
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How does protein relate to memory function?
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Increased protein synthesis is essential for the formation of new memories.
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What structure of the brain is involved with Conduction Aphasia and what does it cause?
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Arcuate Fasciculus
Intact receptive language, but with anomia, paraphasia and impaired repetition |
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Transcortical aphasia of Broca's area causes what?
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Transcortical Motor Aphasia
Non-fluent, effortful, anomia, lack of spontaneous speech with good repetition and comprehension. |
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Transcortical aphasia of Wernicke's area causes what?
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Transcortical Sensory Aphasia
characterized by impaired comprehension, anomia and fluent but meaningless speech. Repetition is left intact. |
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People who are able to talk, but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language and can produce automatic responses, have what language disorder.
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Mixed Transcortical Aphasia
-Develops from lesions outside Wernicke's and Broca'a areas. |
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Global Aphasia usually includes observation of what physical signs?
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Right-sided hemiplegia, hemisensory loss and right hemianopia.
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The James-Lange theory of emotion purports what?
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An emotion is a response to bodily actions.
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The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion purports what?
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Emotion and bodily actions occur simultaneously
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What is the Two-Factor theory of emotion?
Hint: Epinephrine Study |
Emotion is a result of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
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What is Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal Theory of emotion?
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Emotions are universal, but change dependent upon the cognitive appraisal of the situation and the appraisal can be ongoing.
Involves, Primary and Secondary appraisal as well as Re-appraisal |
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According to Lazarus, what is Primary Appraisal?
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A person's evaluation of a situation as being irrelevant, positive-benign or stressful.
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According to Lazarus, what is Secondary Appraisal?
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The person's evaluation of the resources he or she has do deal with a situation being identified as stressful.
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What is Papez's Circuit?
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The first scientific attempt at identifying areas of the brain the mediate emotion.
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Recognition and expression of emotion occurs in which side of the brain?
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Non-dominant
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Damage to which cerebral hemisphere results in apathy, emotional instability, indifference or undue cheerfulness.
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Non-dominant
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Damage to which hemisphere results in catastrophic reactions such as fear, aggression, paranoia and anxiety?
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Dominant
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What structure of the brain in responsible for strong fear reaction and attaching emotional significance to a situation?
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Amygdala
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Which area of the brain transfers an emotional response into physical action through influence of the ANS and pituitary gland?
Damage to this area can cause rage or uncontrollable laughter. |
Hypothalamus
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The General Adaptation Syndrome refers to a similar manner in which people respond to all stressful situations and includes what three stages?
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Alarm Reaction - adrenaline released
Resistance - ACTH is released that then released cortisol Exhaustion - physiological responses breakdown. Leads to depression, fatigue, illness, ulcers |
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Of the Type A characteristics, which is most associated with health problems?
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Hostility
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Which cerebral hemisphere controls negative emotions?
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Right or Non-dominant
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The GAS is mediated by which two glands.
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Adrenal and Pituitary
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What does Sexual Dimorphism refer to in regard to brain development?
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True differences in structures of the brain between males and females. Differences are found in the corpus callosum, SCN and hippocampus.
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Does the introduction of estrogen or androgen lead to a higher sex drive in females after menopause?
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Andgoren
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Is Hormone Replacement Therapy useful for increasing sex drive in females?
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No
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How long does it take a person to go through all five stages of sleep during the night?
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90 to 100 minutes per cycle
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Non-REM sleep is which stages?
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1-4
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People are most likely to remember dreams if awoken in which stage of sleep?
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REM or Stage 5 sleep
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Do the elderly require less sleep?
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No, but they usually need to go to be earlier and get up earlier
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How much sleep comprises REM in infants versus adults?
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50% infants
20% adults |
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During which stage of sleep are sleep spindles seen?
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During Stage 2, theta wave sleep
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What three factors are used to predict the severity of TBI?
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Initial Glascow Coma Scale
Duration of Post-Traumatic Amnesia Duration of Loss of Consciousness |
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What is "shrinking retrograde amnesia"
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Following a TBI, the return of memory for remote memories first, then recent memories
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Postconcussional Syndrome effects what percentage of individuals with mild traumatic brain injury?
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50%
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What are the three types of stroke?
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Thrombosis: Artery blocked by blood clot
Embolism: Block of an artery by material from another part of the bloodstream Hemorrhage - bleeding |
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Huntington's Disease is caused by what?
When is it usually diagnosed? What is the inheritance rate? |
A loss of GABA producing neurons in the Basal Ganglia
Age 30 to 50 50% |
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In what percentage of Parkinson's patients does depression develop first?
What percentage eventually develops depression? |
20%
50% |
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What are the types and characteristics of Generalized Seizures?
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Grand Mal or Tonic Clonic
and Petit Mal or Absence Seizures The latter does not involve motor dyscontrol |
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What are the types and characteristics of Partial Seizures?
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They begin in one hemisphere of the brain.
Simple partial do not involve LoC Complex partial involve some alteration of consciousness |
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MS can be triggered by what three factors?
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Genetic
Viral Environmental |
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MS involves what percentage of people eventually developing cognitive symptoms?
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50 to 70%
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What is the research on the effectiveness of treating HTN with biofeedback?
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It is useful for mild to moderate cases of hypertension and is best when combined with breathing retraining
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What are two of the major hormones excreted by the the Pituitary Gland?
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ADH - Antidiuretic Hormone
Somatotrophic (Growth) Hormone |
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What does hyposecretion of ADH cause?
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Diabetes Insipidus
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What does hypersecretion of Thyroxin produce?
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Grave's Disease or Hyperthyroidism
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Insulin is released by what gland?
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Pancreas
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Hyperinsulinism causes what?
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Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose)
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What is the difference between a Classic and a Common migraine?
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Classic migraine starts with an aura (focal neurological symptoms). Common does not, but may start with gastrointestinal symptoms.
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Which type of headache includes "throbbing" pain,migraines or tension?
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Migraine, not tension headaches
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Which two groups are more sensitive to some psychotropic medications, Asians, African Americans or Latin Americans?
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Asians and African Americans
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Inverse Agonists act by what?
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By producing the opposite effect of a targeted neurotransmitter.
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How does an Antagonist work?
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By blocking sites on a receptor cell to prevent a targeted neurotransmitter from binding to it.
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Which antipsychotic is associated with the highest incidence of EPS?
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Haloperidal
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What are the four common types of EPS?
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Akathisia (motor restlessness)
Acute Dystonia (muscle spasms) Parkinsonism Tardive Dyskinesia |
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Traditional antipsychotics work mainly on which dopamine receptors while atypical antipsychotics work which?
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D2 - traditional
D4 - Atypical |
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What is the biggest problem with TCAs?
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They are Cardiotoxic
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What are the three MAOIs and what are they most useful in treating?
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Tranylcypromine
Phenelzine Isocarboxazid Non-endogenous and atypical depression that involves anxiety and reversed vegetative symtpoms |
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What health concern can MAOIs cause?
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Hypertensive Crisis
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What neurotransmitter do anticonvulsants modulate?
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Serotonin
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What three drugs/classes are included in the sedative hypnotics?
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Barbiturates
Anxiolytics Alcohol |
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How do the Barbiturates work?
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By interrupting impulses to the RAS
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How long do the positive effects on sleep last when using Barbiturates?
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Two weeks after which point total sleep time may fall below pre-drug level
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Which drug can control anxiety without sedation?
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Buspirone (Azapirone)
It takes several weeks for this medication to work though |
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What are Beta-Blockers used to treat?
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Physical symptoms of anxiety
High blood pressure, angina, tremors migraines and glaucoma |
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How long does short-term memory last?
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Without rehearsal, it starts to fade within 30 seconds.
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Short-term memory is thought to be primarily acoustic or visual?
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Acoustic
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What are the two components of Short-Term Memory?
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Primary Memory:
This is capacity 7 +/- 2 Working Memory: Manipulation and Processing of info. |
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What type of encoding leads to the best chance of long-term storage, is it Visual, Acoustic or Semantic
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Semantic
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What are the two types of Long-Term Memory?
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Procedural and Declarative
Declarative Memory can also be divided into Semantic (meaning) or episodic (autobiographical) information. |
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Long-term Memory has also been divided into Implicit and Explicit. What is the difference?
They are roughly equivalent to procedural/declarative memory |
Implicit memory is automatic and is processed through the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum.
Explicit memory requires conscious recollection and is processed through the Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes |
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What is Prospective Memory and are younger or older people better with this in naturalistic settings?
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It is "remembering to remember" or the capacity to remember to do things in the future.
Apparently older people do better with this because they are more likely to use external aides such as a calendar, lists, etc. |
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How do schemas affect memory?
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They alter our interpretation of new information because new information is filtered through memories of existing schemas.
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What is metamemory or metacognition?
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It is knowing how to know. That translates into knowing about mneumonic strategies, rehearsal strategies, etc.
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What is Trace Decay Theory and is it help by research?
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Learning produces a physiological change in the brain that decays over time.
It is not held up by research. |
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What is Retroactive Interference?
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Difficulty recalling old information due newly learned information.
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What is the evidence for the Interference Theory of memory?
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People forget less if they sleep versus stay awake for a period of time, before recalling information.
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What is Encoding Specificity?
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The greater the similarity between the way material is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall.
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What is Elaborative Rehearsal?
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Relating new information to existing knowledge
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