• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/146

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

146 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What two types of receptors does ACh act on?
Muscarinic & Nicotinic
What does ACh do in the peripheral nervous system?
Causes muscles to contract
Myasthenia gravis attacks what?
ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions resulting in profound weakness
What role does ACh play in the central nervous system?
It is involved with REM sleep, learning and memory as well as the sleep-wake cycle.
Degeneration of ACh cells in the entorhinal cortex and other areas that associate directly with the hippocampus are thought to underlie the memory deficits causing what disorder?
Alzheimer's Dementia
What functions are mediated by dopamine? Name 5
Mood, Memory, Movement

Personality, Sleep
It is thought excessive dopamine in the caudate nucleus causes what?
Tourette's Disorder
The Catecholamine Hypothesis predicts what?
Depression is related to low levels of Norepinephrine
Serotonin usually exerts an inhibitory or excitatory effect?
Inhibitory
Elevated levels of what are thought to contribute to Schizophrenia, Autistic Disorder and food restriction in Anorexia?
Serotonin
Low levels of what are thought to play a role in aggression, depression, suicide Bulimia Nervosa, PTSD and OCD?
Serotonin
GABA is an inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter?
Inhibitory
What neurotransmitter is involved with eating,seizure, anxiety, motor control vision and sleep?
GABA
Degeneration of cells that produce GABA in the basal ganglia causes what?
Huntington's disease
Is Glutamate an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Excitatory
What neurotransmitter plays a role in memory and learning, especially Long-term Potentiation?
Glutamate
Endorphins (endogenous morphines), are inhibitory neuromodulators that act by doing what?
Lowering sensitivity of the postsynaptic receptors.
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there that make up the PNS?
12
How many sets of sensory and motor nerves connect with the spinal cord?
31
What are the 5 stages of brain development?

Hint: PMDMS
Proliferation
Migration
Differentation (grow axons & dendrites)
Myelination
Synaptogensis
What three structures compose the hindbrain?
Pons
Medulla
Cerebellum
What brain structure integrates movement between the right and left sides of the brain?
Pons
What structure is involved with the initiation of motor movement?
Basal Ganglia
What structure is involved with the timing and coordination of movements as well as the correction of movement?
Cerebellum
What aspect of cognitive functioning has been attributed to the cerebellum?
Set shifting
Ataxia usually involves what three symptoms and is often associated to damage of what brain structure?
(similar to alcohol intoxication)
Slurred speech
Severe tremors
Loss of balance

Damage to the Cerebellum
What three structures make up the Midbrain?
Hint: SSR
Superior and Inferior Colliculi
(routes for visual and auditory info)
Substantia Nigra
(motor activity and reward system)
Reticular Formation
(contains RAS, involves respiration, vomitting, posture, REM sleep, locomotion)
What four structures are found in the Forebrain?
(subcortical structures)
Hint: BaL HaT
Basal Ganglia
Limbic System

Hypothalamus
Thalamus
What does the Thalamus do?
Relay Station for sensory info
Motor Activity
Language
Memory
Loss of neurons in this area causes Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
Thalamus
What brain structure is involved with hunger, thirst, sex, sleep and body temperature?
Hypothalamus
Uncontrollable laughter or intense rage can occur from damage to what area of the brain?
Hypothalamus
The Suprachaismatic Nucleus is located in the Hypothalamus and mediates what?
Sleep-wake cycle
Circadian Rhythms
Mammillary bodies are involved in memory and learning and are located within what structure?
Hypothalamus
What four structures compose the Basal Ganglia?
(Hint: C PiGS)
Caudate Nucleus
Putamen
Globus Pallidus
Substantia Nigra
What structure is responsible for coordinating and planning motor movement as well as its direction and intensity?
Basal Ganglia
Damage to what structure results in the mask-like face of Parkinson's Dementia because this area is responsible for smiling when happy, frowning when sad, etc.
Basal Ganglia
ADHD has been linked to what three brain structures?
Caudate Nucleus
Globus Pallidus
Prefrontal Cortex
Three structures including the amygdala, hippocampus and cingulate cortex are part of what larger brain system?
Limbic System
What functions does the Limbic System serve?
Mainly the regulation of emotion.

Also implicated with memory
The Amygdala is responsible for what?

Damage to this area results in what?
Attaching emotion to memories

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
What behaviors are seen with Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?
Hyperorality
Hypersexuality
Docility
Reduced Fear and Aggression
Altered dietary habits
What does the Cingulate Cortex do?
It surrounds the corpus callosum and is involved with attention, emotion and the experience of pain
The mental representation of movement is controlled in what area of the brain?
The SAM or Supplemental Motor Area
What loss of function characterizes dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome and in this case, what area of the brain has been damaged?

Hint: JIPO
Impaired judgment, insight, planning and organization

Dorsolateral area
Orbitofrontal Disinhibition Syndrome causes what?
Hint: I DIE (Pseudopsychopathy)
Impulse control problems

Distractibility
Impaired social insight
Emotional lability
Damage to the mediofrontal area of the brain causes what syndrome and what is it characterized by?
Hint: Pseudodepression
Mesial frontal apathetic syndrome

Characterized by impaired spontaneity, reduced emotional reactions, diminished motor behavioral and verbal output, sensory loss and lower extremity weakness.
What structure governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception and gustation?
Somatosensory Cortex
Damage this this area can cause apraxia, tactile agnosia, asomatognosia, anosognosia, contralateral neglect, ideational apraxia or Gerstmann'sSyndrome
The Parietal Lobe
What is Gerstmann's Syndrome and what causes it?
Finger agnosia, R-L confusio, agraphia and acalculia.

Caused by damage to the parietal lobe
What is Apraxia?
Inability to perform skilled motor movements with intact motor functioning.
In which lobe is Wernicke's area located?
Temporal
Prosopagnosia occurs with damage to the junction of what areas?
Temporal-Parietal-Occipital
What is apperceptive visual agnosia?
Inability to perceive objects despite good visual acuity
What is associative visual agnosia?
Inability to recognize an object as a result of impaired memory or inability to access relevant semantic knowledge
Which is the preferred theory to explain color vision. Is it the Young-Helmholtz theory or Opponenet-Process theory?
Neither explain color vision well by themselves so an understanding of color vision uses both theories.
What is a Dermatome?
An area of the body innervated by a dorsal root nerve.
Does pain sensation seem to increase or decrease with age?
Decrease
The Gate Control Theory of Pain accounts for what type of pain reduction?
Using heat or cold, mental distraction or massage to lessen pain since only a certain amount of stimulation can be processed at one time.
What is Synesthesia?
A rare condition in which stimulation of one sense triggers another sense. For example, a person can hear a color or taste a sound.
What does the acronym HERA stand for in regard to memory function?
Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry.
It means encoding occurs in the left hemisphere while retrieval occurs in the right hemisphere, specifically the right frontal cortex.
Describe the function of the Temporal Lobes with memory, in addition to the difference between the Right and Left cortex.
Both are involved with encoding, storage and retrieval of long-term declarative memories.
Right: Nonverbal memory
Left: Verbal memory
What is the role of the Hippocampus in memory?
Transferring of information from short-term to long-term memory, but those memories are stored elsewhere.
What is the role of the Amygdala in memory?
Attaching emotional significance to memory.
What is the role of the Prefrontal Cortex in memory?
Working Memory (dorsolateral area)
False recognition, prospective and constructive memories
What is the role of the Thalamus in memory?
Processing incoming information and transferring it to the cortex. Damage to this area from alcohol causes Korsakoff's Syndrome
What is the role of the Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum and Motor Cortex in memory?
They play a role in Procedural Memory (sensorimotor skills, unintentional memory)
What is Long-Term Potentiation?
An increase in receptivity of the post-synaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynaptic neuron that can last up to weeks after a period of high-intensity stimulation
How does protein relate to memory function?
Increased protein synthesis is essential for the formation of new memories.
What structure of the brain is involved with Conduction Aphasia and what does it cause?
Arcuate Fasciculus
Intact receptive language, but with anomia, paraphasia and impaired repetition
Transcortical aphasia of Broca's area causes what?
Transcortical Motor Aphasia
Non-fluent, effortful, anomia, lack of spontaneous speech with good repetition and comprehension.
Transcortical aphasia of Wernicke's area causes what?
Transcortical Sensory Aphasia
characterized by impaired comprehension, anomia and fluent but meaningless speech. Repetition is left intact.
People who are able to talk, but have nothing to say and are unable to understand written and spoken language and can produce automatic responses, have what language disorder.
Mixed Transcortical Aphasia
-Develops from lesions outside Wernicke's and Broca'a areas.
Global Aphasia usually includes observation of what physical signs?
Right-sided hemiplegia, hemisensory loss and right hemianopia.
The James-Lange theory of emotion purports what?
An emotion is a response to bodily actions.
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion purports what?
Emotion and bodily actions occur simultaneously
What is the Two-Factor theory of emotion?

Hint: Epinephrine Study
Emotion is a result of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
What is Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal Theory of emotion?
Emotions are universal, but change dependent upon the cognitive appraisal of the situation and the appraisal can be ongoing.
Involves, Primary and Secondary appraisal as well as Re-appraisal
According to Lazarus, what is Primary Appraisal?
A person's evaluation of a situation as being irrelevant, positive-benign or stressful.
According to Lazarus, what is Secondary Appraisal?
The person's evaluation of the resources he or she has do deal with a situation being identified as stressful.
What is Papez's Circuit?
The first scientific attempt at identifying areas of the brain the mediate emotion.
Recognition and expression of emotion occurs in which side of the brain?
Non-dominant
Damage to which cerebral hemisphere results in apathy, emotional instability, indifference or undue cheerfulness.
Non-dominant
Damage to which hemisphere results in catastrophic reactions such as fear, aggression, paranoia and anxiety?
Dominant
What structure of the brain in responsible for strong fear reaction and attaching emotional significance to a situation?
Amygdala
Which area of the brain transfers an emotional response into physical action through influence of the ANS and pituitary gland?
Damage to this area can cause rage or uncontrollable laughter.
Hypothalamus
The General Adaptation Syndrome refers to a similar manner in which people respond to all stressful situations and includes what three stages?
Alarm Reaction - adrenaline released

Resistance - ACTH is released that then released cortisol

Exhaustion - physiological responses breakdown. Leads to depression, fatigue, illness, ulcers
Of the Type A characteristics, which is most associated with health problems?
Hostility
Which cerebral hemisphere controls negative emotions?
Right or Non-dominant
The GAS is mediated by which two glands.
Adrenal and Pituitary
What does Sexual Dimorphism refer to in regard to brain development?
True differences in structures of the brain between males and females. Differences are found in the corpus callosum, SCN and hippocampus.
Does the introduction of estrogen or androgen lead to a higher sex drive in females after menopause?
Andgoren
Is Hormone Replacement Therapy useful for increasing sex drive in females?
No
How long does it take a person to go through all five stages of sleep during the night?
90 to 100 minutes per cycle
Non-REM sleep is which stages?
1-4
People are most likely to remember dreams if awoken in which stage of sleep?
REM or Stage 5 sleep
Do the elderly require less sleep?
No, but they usually need to go to be earlier and get up earlier
How much sleep comprises REM in infants versus adults?
50% infants

20% adults
During which stage of sleep are sleep spindles seen?
During Stage 2, theta wave sleep
What three factors are used to predict the severity of TBI?
Initial Glascow Coma Scale

Duration of Post-Traumatic Amnesia

Duration of Loss of Consciousness
What is "shrinking retrograde amnesia"
Following a TBI, the return of memory for remote memories first, then recent memories
Postconcussional Syndrome effects what percentage of individuals with mild traumatic brain injury?
50%
What are the three types of stroke?
Thrombosis: Artery blocked by blood clot

Embolism: Block of an artery by material from another part of the bloodstream

Hemorrhage - bleeding
Huntington's Disease is caused by what?

When is it usually diagnosed?
What is the inheritance rate?
A loss of GABA producing neurons in the Basal Ganglia
Age 30 to 50
50%
In what percentage of Parkinson's patients does depression develop first?

What percentage eventually develops depression?
20%


50%
What are the types and characteristics of Generalized Seizures?
Grand Mal or Tonic Clonic
and
Petit Mal or Absence Seizures

The latter does not involve motor dyscontrol
What are the types and characteristics of Partial Seizures?
They begin in one hemisphere of the brain.
Simple partial do not involve LoC
Complex partial involve some alteration of consciousness
MS can be triggered by what three factors?
Genetic
Viral
Environmental
MS involves what percentage of people eventually developing cognitive symptoms?
50 to 70%
What is the research on the effectiveness of treating HTN with biofeedback?
It is useful for mild to moderate cases of hypertension and is best when combined with breathing retraining
What are two of the major hormones excreted by the the Pituitary Gland?
ADH - Antidiuretic Hormone

Somatotrophic (Growth) Hormone
What does hyposecretion of ADH cause?
Diabetes Insipidus
What does hypersecretion of Thyroxin produce?
Grave's Disease or Hyperthyroidism
Insulin is released by what gland?
Pancreas
Hyperinsulinism causes what?
Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose)
What is the difference between a Classic and a Common migraine?
Classic migraine starts with an aura (focal neurological symptoms). Common does not, but may start with gastrointestinal symptoms.
Which type of headache includes "throbbing" pain,migraines or tension?
Migraine, not tension headaches
Which two groups are more sensitive to some psychotropic medications, Asians, African Americans or Latin Americans?
Asians and African Americans
Inverse Agonists act by what?
By producing the opposite effect of a targeted neurotransmitter.
How does an Antagonist work?
By blocking sites on a receptor cell to prevent a targeted neurotransmitter from binding to it.
Which antipsychotic is associated with the highest incidence of EPS?
Haloperidal
What are the four common types of EPS?
Akathisia (motor restlessness)
Acute Dystonia (muscle spasms)
Parkinsonism
Tardive Dyskinesia
Traditional antipsychotics work mainly on which dopamine receptors while atypical antipsychotics work which?
D2 - traditional

D4 - Atypical
What is the biggest problem with TCAs?
They are Cardiotoxic
What are the three MAOIs and what are they most useful in treating?
Tranylcypromine
Phenelzine
Isocarboxazid

Non-endogenous and atypical depression that involves anxiety and reversed vegetative symtpoms
What health concern can MAOIs cause?
Hypertensive Crisis
What neurotransmitter do anticonvulsants modulate?
Serotonin
What three drugs/classes are included in the sedative hypnotics?
Barbiturates
Anxiolytics
Alcohol
How do the Barbiturates work?
By interrupting impulses to the RAS
How long do the positive effects on sleep last when using Barbiturates?
Two weeks after which point total sleep time may fall below pre-drug level
Which drug can control anxiety without sedation?
Buspirone (Azapirone)

It takes several weeks for this medication to work though
What are Beta-Blockers used to treat?
Physical symptoms of anxiety

High blood pressure, angina, tremors migraines and glaucoma
How long does short-term memory last?
Without rehearsal, it starts to fade within 30 seconds.
Short-term memory is thought to be primarily acoustic or visual?
Acoustic
What are the two components of Short-Term Memory?
Primary Memory:
This is capacity 7 +/- 2

Working Memory:
Manipulation and Processing of info.
What type of encoding leads to the best chance of long-term storage, is it Visual, Acoustic or Semantic
Semantic
What are the two types of Long-Term Memory?
Procedural and Declarative

Declarative Memory can also be divided into Semantic (meaning) or episodic (autobiographical) information.
Long-term Memory has also been divided into Implicit and Explicit. What is the difference?

They are roughly equivalent to procedural/declarative memory
Implicit memory is automatic and is processed through the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum.

Explicit memory requires conscious recollection and is processed through the Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes
What is Prospective Memory and are younger or older people better with this in naturalistic settings?
It is "remembering to remember" or the capacity to remember to do things in the future.

Apparently older people do better with this because they are more likely to use external aides such as a calendar, lists, etc.
How do schemas affect memory?
They alter our interpretation of new information because new information is filtered through memories of existing schemas.
What is metamemory or metacognition?
It is knowing how to know. That translates into knowing about mneumonic strategies, rehearsal strategies, etc.
What is Trace Decay Theory and is it help by research?
Learning produces a physiological change in the brain that decays over time.

It is not held up by research.
What is Retroactive Interference?
Difficulty recalling old information due newly learned information.
What is the evidence for the Interference Theory of memory?
People forget less if they sleep versus stay awake for a period of time, before recalling information.
What is Encoding Specificity?
The greater the similarity between the way material is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall.
What is Elaborative Rehearsal?
Relating new information to existing knowledge