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128 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Maslow
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
~People are always motivated towards higher order needs Self-Actualization ~ Self-Esteem/Prestige ~ Belonging/Love Security/Safety ~ Food/Water ~ Needs are filled from the physiological to the social to the cognitive level |
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Arnold Gesell
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~Believed that a child's growth was genetically pre-ordained given a normal environment
~Children bloomed in an orderly and predictable pattern Terms associated with Gesell include: • Day Cycle – Everyday abilities expand; growth occurs. • Self-Regulatory Fluctuations – Growth and instability occur simultaneously moving the child toward maturity. • Constitutional Individuality – Each individual is unique and has his or her own growth pattern/mode. Through his research, he developed a measure that is used as a clinical tool to help differentiate potentially normal babies from abnormal ones. The version of the test that is currently used assesses four major fields of growth/behavior: 1. Motor – Gross bodily control and finer motor coordinations including head balance, sitting, creeping, grasping objects, etc. 2. Language – Audible and visual communication including facial expressions, gestures, vocalizations, comprehension of others’ communication, etc. 3. Adaptive – Eye-hand coordination, fine motor coordination, begins to adjust for simple problems, etc. 4. Personal-Social – Cooperativeness, responsiveness to training, feeding abilities, etc. |
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Robert Havighurst
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Stages of Growth
~ Each developmental task requiring the last one for success ~ Havighurst is perhaps best known for his delineation of four stages of adulthood: Stage 1: Early Adulthood (about ages 18 to 30) Tasks: ● Explore intimate relationships and start a family • Explore and begin a career • Explore and find a compatible social group Stage 2: Middle Adulthood or Middle Age (about ages 30 to 60) Tasks: ● Manage career • Nurture the marital relationship, social relationships, and the household Stage 3: Later Adulthood or Later Maturity (about ages 60 to 75) Tasks: ● Accept new roles and activities • Accept life • Formulate a viewpoint on death Stage 4: Very Old Age Task: ● Coping with physical changes |
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Behaviorism
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Watson and Skinner
~ Learning approach ~ Environment manipulates the biological and physical drives resulting in development ~ Learning and behavior changes are the result of rewards and punishments ~ Reward is a positive reinforcing stimulus |
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Thorndike
~ Law of Effect |
Law of Effect
~ When a stimulus response connection is followed by a reward (reinforcement) that connection is strengthened |
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Ivan Pavlov
~ Classical Conditioning |
Theory involves reflexes ie dog salivates
~ Pavlovian conditioning is respondent/reflex oriented Meat=UCS Bell=UCS |
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Stimulus Generalization
~ Irradiation ~ Second Order Conditioning |
Occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS (bell) produces the same reaction
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Experimental Neurosis
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Differentiation process between stimuli becomes difficult because they are almost identical. This results in emotional disturbance
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Instrumental/Operant
~ Skinner |
Instrumental/Operant Conditioning
~ P/U toys get a hug or cookie |
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Negative reinforcement
vs Positive Reinforcement |
Positive Reinforcement:
Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver. ~ Negative Reinforcement: Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week. |
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Freud's Five Stages of Development
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Oral-Birth-0-18 months
~ Anal-2-3 years ~ Phallic-3-5 years (Oedipal and Electra Stage ~ Latency ~ Genital |
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Assimilation
+ Accommodation |
Assimilation
Taking in new information ~ This results in ~ Accommodation Modification of child's mental structure to deal with new info |
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Schema
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Mental structure that processes information
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Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development
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Sensorimotor (birth-2 years)
Child differentiates self from objects; Can think of object not in the present; Seeks Stimulation ~ Preoperational (2-7) Language development begins;Child is egocentric;Difficulty taking another's point of view;Classifies object by one feature ~ Concrete Operational (7-11) Begins logical operations;can order objects small to large/first to last; Understands conservation ~ Formal Operation (11-15) Moves towards abstract thinking; Logical problem solving can occur |
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Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
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Preconventional
Stage 1~Punishment and obedience orientation exists. Must follow rules to avoid punishment Stage 2~Orientation towards self interest and pleasurable outcomes (obtaining rewards) Conventional Stage 3: Must follow the rules to win approval and maintain expectations of social group Stage 4: Law and order orientation exists; Conformity to legitimate authorities. Must follow rules because I know they are right Postconventional Stage 5: Must follow rules but they can be changed. Most values and rules are relative Stage 6: Must follow rules because they are just and align with my values |
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Daniel Levinson
~Seasons of a Man's Life |
~Identified 3 major transitions/times occurring between 4 major eras of life
~Early adult transition (17-22) ~Mid-life transition (40-45)*Midlife crisis occurs Late adult transition (60-65) In adulthood, copes with 3 developmental tasks a. Build, modify and enhance life structure b. Form and modify single components of the life structure: life dream, occupation, love, marriage c. Tasks become more individuated |
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Albert Bandura
~ Social Learning Theory |
Social Learning Theory
~ Self efficacy-the belief that we can perform some behavior or task ~ 4 Mechanisms: ~Modeling after other's behaviors ~Vicarious experience-watching others ~Verbal persuasion from others that one can do a task Physiological states-Emotional arousal or anxiety involved in doing the behavior |
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Conservation
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A substance's weight, mass and volume stays the same even of it changes shape
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Egocentrism
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Child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else
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Gibson
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Researched depth perception in infants using visual cliffs
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Harlow
(Monkeys) |
When given a choice of two cloth covred mothers-one that provided milk and one that did not-the infant monkeys chose the one that gave milk. In a later experiment, Harlow and a colleague discovered that a warm mother and a mother who rocked were superior to a cool mother or a mother who did not rock
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Object Permanence
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The child who has not mastered object permanence struggles with out of sight out of mind and needs representational thought to master object permanence
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John Bowlby
(Attachment/Bonding) |
Conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood
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Fixation
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Person is unable to move from one developmental stage to the next
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Centration
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Preoperational stage and is characterized by the child focusing on a key feature of a given object
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Konrad Lorenz
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Stated that aggression is an inborn tendency and is necessary for survival
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Critical Period
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Makes imprinting possible and signifies a time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior wont be learned at all
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Equilibration
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The balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation)
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Ego-dystonic
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The individual perceives the symptoms or traits as unacceptable and undesirable
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Ego-syntonic
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Person sees the symptoms as acceptable
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Mental Status Exam
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Formal mental status exam covers the following areas:
Appearance and Behavior ~ Thought Processes ~ Mood and Affect ~ Intellectual Functioning ~ Sensorium |
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Projective Tests
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Rorscharch
~ TAT ~ Incomplete Sentences Blank |
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Personality Tests
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MMPI
~ California Psychological Inventory |
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Intelligence Tests
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Weschler Adult Intelligent Scale
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Neuro Tests
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Measure brain dysfunctions and measure abilities such as language expression, attention and concentration, memory, motor skills and perceptual abilities
~ Luria Nebraska Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test |
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Freud
Psychoanalytic |
Id-Ruled by the Pleasure Principle
Ego-Reality Principle Superego-Internalized ethics ~ ~ Therapy Techniques: Free association, interpretation of dreams and other client material ~ Transference/Countertransference must be worked through |
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Object Relations
(Mahler, Kohut and Kernberg) |
Based on psychoanalytic concepts
~ Object relations are interpersonal relationships that shape an individual's current interactions with people, both in reality and in fantasy |
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Object Relations Stages of Development
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Fusion with mother: normal infantile autism (first 3-4 weeks of life
~ Symbiosis: with mother (3-8 months) ~ Separation/Individuation: starts the 4th of 5th month ~ Constancy of self and object: by the 36th month ~ Progressing through these stages provides the child a secure base for later development. the child develops trust that his or her needs wil be met. ~ Attachment, borderline and narcissistic disorders may occur when normal progression through these stages does not occur |
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Person-Centered
~ Client-Centered ~ Rogerian |
The relationship between the client and counselor and moving clients toward self actualization are primary concepts:
Unconditional Positive Regard ~ Genuineness ~ Empathetic Understanding |
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Gestalt
(Fritz Perls) |
Based on existential principles
~ Here and now focus ~ Holistic systems theory viewpoint ~ The goal of therapy is for the person to become a whole being, to complete the gestalt ~ Key Concepts: personal responsibility, unfinished business and awareness of the now ~ Counselor uses confrontation and encourages the client to stay with the feelings and relive experiences and finish business. This is also known as experiential therapy |
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Individual Psychology
(Adler and Dreikurs) |
Uniqueness of each individual is influenced bu social factors
~ We choose a lifestyle, a unified life plan which gives meaning to our experiences which include habits, family, career, attitudes etc ~ Goals: Help client understand lifestyle and identify appropriate social and community interests ~ Techniques are used to generate insight such as life histories, home work and paradoxical intentions |
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Transactional Analysis
(Eric Berne) |
3 Ego States
~ Parent ~Nurturing Parent and the Critical Parent ~Synthesis of the messages received from parental figures and significant others incorporated into the personality. ~Strong resemblance to the superego Adult ~Processes facts and does not focus on feelings ~Corresponds to Freud's Ego Child ~Like the child within and may manifest itself as a CHILD |
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Freud
Psychoanalytic |
Id-Ruled by the Pleasure Principle
Ego-Reality Principle Superego-Internalized ethics ~ ~ Therapy Techniques: Free association, interpretation of dreams and other client material ~ Transference/Countertransference must be worked through |
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Object Relations
(Mahler, Kohut and Kernberg) |
Based on psychoanalytic concepts
~ Object relations are interpersonal relationships that shape an individual's current interactions with people, both in reality and in fantasy |
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Object Relations Stages of Development
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Fusion with mother: normal infantile autism (first 3-4 weeks of life
~ Symbiosis: with mother (3-8 months) ~ Separation/Individuation: starts the 4th of 5th month ~ Constancy of self and object: by the 36th month ~ Progressing through these stages provides the child a secure base for later development. the child develops trust that his or her needs wil be met. ~ Attachment, borderline and narcissistic disorders may occur when normal progression through these stages does not occur |
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Person-Centered
~ Client-Centered ~ Rogerian |
The relationship between the client and counselor and moving clients toward self actualization are primary concepts:
Unconditional Positive Regard ~ Genuineness ~ Empathetic Understanding |
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Gestalt
(Fritz Perls) |
Based on existential principles
~ Here and now focus ~ Holistic systems theory viewpoint ~ The goal of therapy is for the person to become a whole being, to complete the gestalt ~ Key Concepts: personal responsibility, unfinished business and awareness of the now ~ Counselor uses confrontation and encourages the client to stay with the feelings and relive experiences and finish business. This is also known as experiential therapy ~Role Playing, two chair techniques and dream work are used |
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Individual Psychology
(Adler and Dreikurs) |
Uniqueness of each individual is influenced bu social factors
~ We choose a lifestyle, a unified life plan which gives meaning to our experiences which include habits, family, career, attitudes etc ~ Goals: Help client understand lifestyle and identify appropriate social and community interests ~ Techniques are used to generate insight such as life histories, home work and paradoxical intentions |
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Transactional Analysis
(Eric Berne) |
Life script develops in childhood and influences a person's behavior. Transactions with others can be characterized as games with the intent to avoid intimacy.
~Complementary transactions (Adult to Adult-lead to good communication ~Crossed transactions (Adult to Child and Child to Parent) lead to barriers to communication Goal of Therapy: teach language and ideas of TA to recognize ego state functioning and analyze one's transactions Techniques: teaching concepts, diagnose, interpretation and use of contracts and confrontation 3 Ego States ~ Parent ~Nurturing Parent and the Critical Parent ~Synthesis of the messages received from parental figures and significant others incorporated into the personality. ~Strong resemblance to the superego Adult ~Processes facts and does not focus on feelings ~Corresponds to Freud's Ego Child ~Like the child within and may manifest itself as a CHILD |
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Erlson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
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Trust v. Mistrust-Birth-1.5 years
Infant develops trust if basic needs are met ~ Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt-3-6 years Children meet challenges, assume responsibility and identify the rights of others ~ Industry v. Inferiority-6-11 years Children master social or academic skills or feel inferior ~ Identity v. Role Confusion-adolescence Establishes social and vocational role or becomes confused about identity ~ Intimacy v. Isolation-early adulthood Young adult seeks intimate relationships or fears giving up independence and becoming lonely and isolated ~ Generativity v. Isolation-middle adulthood Desire to produce something of value ~ Integrity v. Despair Older adults view life as meaningful and positive or with regrets |
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Existentialism
(Rollo, May Frankl, Yalom) |
Phenomenology is the basis for existential therapy
~This is the study of out direct experiences taken at face value. We have freedom of choice and are responsible for our fate ~We search for meaning an struggle with being alone, unconnected from others ~Anxiety and guilt are central concepts: anxiety is the threat of non-being and guilt occurs when we fail to fulfill our potential ~Goal of existential therapy is the understanding of one's being ~Client-centered counseling techniques are appropriate |
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Crites (Trait and Facto
(Career/Vocational Maturity) Career Maturity Inventory |
Diagnose The Problem
Differential-What are the problems? Dynamic-Why have the problems occurred? Decisional-How are the problems being dealt with? ~ Begins with client centered and developmental counseling, followed by psycho-dynamic and then trait and factor behavioral approaches. |
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Gelatt
(Decision Making) |
-Recognize Need to Make a Decision
-Collect information and look at courses of action -Examine outcomes and probability -Attend to value system -Evaluate and make a decision Two By Four Process Two Attitudes -Accept past, prest and future as uncertain -Be positive about uncertainty Four Factors -What you want -What you know What you believe What you do |
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Ginzberg
(Decision Making) |
Fantasy-Play becomes work oriented
Tentative-Interest, capacity, value and transition Realistic-Exploration, Crystallization |
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Tiedman and Miller
(Decision Making) |
Career development parallels 8 psychosocial stages by Erikson
Life decisions and career decisions are integrally related Anticipation or Preoccupation -Exploration -Crystallization -Choice -Clarification Implementation or Adjustment -Induction -Reformation Integration |
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Super
(Developmental/Lifespan) |
Emphasizes self concept
GEEMD Growth-0-15-Develops interests and self concept Exploratory-15-24-Tentative choices are made Establishment-25-44-Trial and error in work situations Maintenance-45-64-Adjustment process Decline-65+Pre-retirement |
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Holland
(R-I-A-S-E-C) Life Career Rainbow-roles we play |
This theory is the foundation
for Strong Vocational Interest Inventory. The six types: Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional Realistic: Individuals comfortable in these environments prefer defined tasks requiring physical manipulation and few interpersonal skills. Preferred activities deal with concrete objects (tools, machines, information) and require good motor coordination. Examples: Accountants, agricultural workers, engineers, mechanics, technicians Investigative: Often having poor persuasive and social skills, individuals functioning well in these environments prefer systematic yet creative investigational activities. Without the need for power, status or dominance, these individuals avoid interpersonal relationships. They prefer abstract concepts and use their intelligence to solve problems. Examples: Chemists, computer programmers, mathematicians, scientists Artistic: People in this category are imaginative and dislike systematic, ordered tasks. Preferring self-expression via physical, verbal or other avenues, they are comfortable with their feelings. Typically nonconforming and difficult to contain, they abhor organizational or administrative tasks that are part of most processes. Examples: Artists, editors, musicians, actors, writers Social: Clearly social, these individuals prefer activities that inform, develop or enlighten others. Seeking vocations that require relationships, they dislike activities that focus upon tools or machines. Examples: Counselors, social workers, teachers Enterprising: Tending to dominate and manipulate others, people in this category are extroverted. Preferring leadership and persuasive roles, they dislike abstractions and caution. Seeming always “on the edge,” they are driven by power and social status. Examples: Managers, politicians, sales personnel, self-employed entrepreneurs Conventional: Content to be subordinated and prefer conformity to rules and regulations, conventional types prefer practical, orderly, clean, systematic and structured activities. Ambiguity is abhorrent. Examples: File clerks, cost accountants, clerical workers |
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Gottfredson
Circumscription and Comprimise (Developmental) |
Self Concept is central to career selection
People narrow down jobs (circumscribe) and opt out of inappropriate jobs (compromise) as they develop Developmental Process Orientation to Size and Power (3-5) Begins to understand what it means to be an adult Orientation to Sex Roles (6-8) Children learn that many occupations are performed by one sex type or another Orientation to social valuation (9-13) Greater awareness of values held by peers Orientation to internal unique self (14+) In occupational selection as a teenager or adult, internal factors such as aspirations, values and interests are critical Children choose jobs that suit their sex Teenagers choose jobs that suit their social values and class Teenage years and beyond, self awareness helps determine occupation |
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Krumboltz
Learning Theory of Career Counseling |
Influenced by Bandura's social learning theory
Learning skills over time influence career choice Planned Happenstance-Unplanned events which influence career development |
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Savickas
Social Constructionism |
Narrative approach
Stories and meanings are provided by clients |
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Schein's Model of Consultation
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Process model that emphasizes group-dynamics and
communication processes within organizations. Process consultation is also known as organizational development. Schein recommended the following seven interacting and overlapping steps to process consultation: 1. initial contact with the client organization 2. definition of the consultation relationship, including both the formal and psychological contracts 3. selection and setting of a method of work 4. data gathering and diagnosis 5. intervention 6. involvement reduction 7. termination D. Process consultants are usually not experts in the field of their consultees. Rather, they provide expertise in interpersonal process (e.g., communication) within an organization. E. Process models of consultation are sometimes called "purchase" or "purchase of expertise" models |
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Caplan’s 4 Models of Mental Health Consultation:
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Client-Centered Case Consultation - a consultee needs help assessing or diagnosing a patient and needs to consult a specialist to assess the client and offer suggestions to the consultee
Consultee-Centered Case Consultation - a consultee who has a difficult client needs help due to their own professional shortcomings • Lack of Knowledge • Lack of Skill • Lack of Self-Confidence • Lack of Objectively Program-Centered Administrative Consultation - similar to Client-Centered, it deals with developing and implementing programs at the administrative organizational level Consultee-Centered Administrative Consultation - the consultant deals with the administrative level discovering shortcomings and other issues to guide them to discover ways to improve their organizational standards |
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Primary Groups
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Preventive; teach coping strategies or life-style characteristics that can
reduce the incidence of a problem (ex. diet and weight management to prevent diabetes). Primary (preventative) groups; sometimes called affective education groups or psychological education groups; do not deal with remediation; leadership requires little training. |
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Secondary/Counseling Groups
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attempt to reduce the severity or the length of time of disturbing
behaviors; a problem is present but is not usually severe (ex. grief group). focused on conscious issues; not likely psychodynamic; leadership requires some training. |
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Tertiary
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deal with severe, longstanding problems or disturbances; has more of an
individual focus. tertiary; the psychological disturbance is rather severe and will require a longer term of individual work; deals with remediation of more severe pathology; may be psychodynamic; leadership requires much training. |
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Task and Work Groups –
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Focus on leading groups in correcting or developing their
organizational functioning; may include facilitating planning or evaluation. 1. Leader role • Facilitator 2. Techniques • standard discussion methods • team building • collaborative group problem solving • consultation regarding program development • strategies to effect change 3. Required contextual understanding • Organizational, community, and/or political dynamics since task groups often occur within these settings. |
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Psychoeducation Groups –
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Focus on particular themes chosen from needs assessments
or relevant literature; impart information and provide education and support. 1. Leader role • Instructor; facilitate skill development. 2. Techniques • Structured or semi-structured group facilitation • Each session is structured and exercises within the sessions are structured. 3. Required contextual understanding a. Often focused on prevention (primary prevention is intervention intended to lessen new occurrences of behavior); group activities change with the degree of “at-risk” potential of members. b. Comprehension and application of human lifespan development with accompanying diversity, environmental, demographic, social marketing, and system development influence issues. |
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Group Counseling – f
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Focuses on enhancing growth and self-awareness and removing
blockages to growth. 1. Leader role • Role characteristics will depend on the leader’s personal conceptual framework (cognitive, existential, behavioral, etc.) and the group situation. • Co-leadership or co-facilitation may be employed: a. Provides additional role model for group members. b. Provides support and safety for leaders. c. Guards against burnout. d. Facilitates the leaders’ processing the group experience and evaluation; best if leaders meet both before and after each session. e. Requires a good match between leaders. f. Requires an on-going working relationship between leaders that is open and sharing; not questioning the other’s competence; not working against each other; not in a power struggle. g. Allows stronger focus on group dynamics. h. Allows group to meet if one leader is absent. i. Provides additional feedback to group members. j. Allows effective communication to be modeled. k. Allows effective leadership to continue even when one leader is experiencing countertransference. l. Allows novices to learn to lead a group. Note: A male/female co-leading team is considered especially advantageous. |
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Advantages vs Disadvantages of Group Counseling
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5. Advantages of group counseling
a. Benefit of interpersonal relationships and interpersonal learning. b. Less expensive than individual counseling. c. Therapeutic orientation. d. Provides automatic support group. e. Allows learning of problem-solving strategies. 6. Disadvantages of group counseling a. Difficulty in recruiting and appropriately matching members to a group. b. Individual needs may not be addressed. c. Client confidentiality is difficult to maintain. |
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Group Psychotherapy –
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Focuses on remediation, treatment and personality
reconstruction. 1. Leader role • Role characteristics will depend on the leader’s personal conceptual framework (cognitive, existential, behavioral, etc.) and the group situation. 2. Techniques a. Chosen based on leader’s conceptual framework. b. May include: • interpersonal and intrapersonal assessment • diagnosis • interpretation • linking current problems with client’s history, etc. 3. Required contextual understanding a. Knowledge of human development and personality development. b. Development of abnormal behavior and dysfunction. c. Knowledge of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) categories to match assessment with group membership criteria. d. Knowledge of crisis theory and the role it plays in individual and in group work. 4. Related required components a. Special screening attention because members can come from a wide range of psychological and emotional disturbance populations. Individuals with character disorders or poor reality contact are not good prospects for group psychotherapy. b. Leader competence to recognize and to deal with crucial behaviors: self- defeating, antagonistic, extremely dysfunctional, dangerous, disruptive, etc. May require the leader’s direct intervention (even physical) or hospitalization. c. Gradiated goal achievement, recognition of incremental gains, increased support, and repeated group involvement are probable. |
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T-Groups (Training Groups)
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1. May be called laboratory-training groups or sensitivity groups; called microlab if
short in duration. 2. Focus on human relations processes in business settings; help people from organizational settings develop human relations skills by examining the group process rather than personal growth. 3. Are associated with the National Training Laboratory and Kurt Lewin. The National Training Laboratory was established under the National Education Association to sponsor "T-Groups" (basic skill training groups). Leland Bradford guided T-group development. |
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Self-Help or Support Groups
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1. Members all have the same issue to deal with (weight, grief, alcohol).
2. Members learn from and receive support from each other. 3. Membership is voluntary. 4. The leader is not necessarily a professional. 5. Many follow the Alcoholic Anonymous 12 steps and are therefore called 12-step groups. 6. Over half a million self-help groups exist in the U.S. with over 15 million members. |
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Encounter Groups
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1. Emphasize personal growth.
2. Are associated with Rogers. The focus is on the here-and-now experience and includes the I-Thou encounter. Marathon groups are the most commonly known type. |
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Marathon Groups
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Rely on long sessions (over a weekend or several days) to break down defenses and
facades of members so the members can confront issues in an honest, real, and genuine way. |
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What Research Says about Group Work
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A. While group work is both popular and effective, group work in general has not been proven
to be superior to other modes of treatment. Research says group work works, just not necessarily better. B. Outcome based research has concluded that groups are effective. Outcome based research asks: “Where the goals met?” C. Process based research has not been able to determine why or how groups are effective. Process based research attempts to determine what transpired within the group to allow it and/or its members to reach its desired goals. D. In particular, studies in group work are not often well controlled, e.g. the independent variable has not been scientifically defined. E. Research studies have not been able to pinpoint the “most important” characteristics that propel a group leader to the position of “great group leader.” Flexibility, enthusiasm, and common sense have been shown to be slightly helpful. F. Group work is predicted to become focused on forming groups that will deal with a broader spectrum of issues than is now seen with most groups. Whereas currently most groups have a specific, narrow focus (anger management, for instance), a “comprehensive life-skills model” would afford the opportunity to present preventive mental health skills. As this transition is made, the leader of a life-skills group would function as more of a trainer than a counselor. The need for “therapeutic groups” should lessen. |
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Groups
Introduction - Initial - Orientation - Exploration - Forming Stage |
Inclusion, identity, trust, and establishment of goals are the issues.
a. Self-disclosure b. Setting structure of the group meeting c. Setting norms d. Getting acquainted based on externals (dress, language, culture, occupation) e. Clarifying expectations f. Defining individual goals g. Leader responses: warmth, empathy, respect for members h. Characterized by approach-avoidance conflicts i. Employing techniques specifically chosen to • Initiate getting acquainted • Focus members • Create trust • Deal with initial resistance and fears • Start a session • Ending a session • Teach member self-evaluation |
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Transition - Power and Control - Storming Stage
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Anxiety, defenses, resistance, and ways to address the goals are the issues.
a. Vying for position or power b. Exhibiting resistance or judgmentalism c. Verbally attacking the leader and other members d. Fighting among subgroups and factions e. Leaders must learn to distinguish between a “challenge” and an “attack” (Corey and Corey, 2000) f. Leader responses: genuineness, concreteness, deeper self-disclosure g. Employing techniques specifically chosen to • Deal with defensive behaviors • Deal with difficult members • Deal with conflict • Explore common fears and resistance • Deal with challenges to the leader |
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Working - Action - Productive Stage
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Taking responsibility for attaining goals and changing behaviors are the issues.
a. Increasing cohesion and trust to a high level b. Increasing mutuality and self-exploration c. Less dependence on the leader d. Modifying interaction patterns e. Committing to change in the here-and-now context f. Leader responses: interpreting meaning, appropriate confrontation, and feedback g. Employing techniques specifically chosen to • Deal with expressed confusion • Deal with issues of closeness • Teach appropriate disclosure • Elicit emotional responses when they are being held back • Deal with the fear of losing control • Deal with intense emotions in all members simultaneously • Work with dreams • Work with projection and self-awareness problems |
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Termination - Separation - Adjourning Stage
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Reinforcing the growth experienced by members, making sure differences between
members are worked out before departure, and assisting with ongoing individual counseling as needed are the issues. a. Summarizing the group's activity and discussion b. Evaluating the group process c. Allowing the group to evaluate the group and themselves individually d. Providing for referral or continued counseling for those who feel they should continue e. Explaining that because of emotional involvement it may be strange to not have group and there may be a period of adjustment; outside bonds should be established f. Saying good-bye g. Employing techniques specifically chosen to • End a session • Terminate a group • Assess and follow-up • Evaluate a group |
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Group Building and Maintenance Roles: That Which Helps Hold a Group Together
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1. Facilitator/Encourager – Encourages, extends friendship, and offers security
2. Gatekeeper/Expeditor – Acts as the counselor's assistant and keeps members within group norms; may avoid working on own issues; may secretly want to lead the group 3. Standard or Goal Setter – Pushes for goal definition 4. Harmonizer/Conciliator – Mediates mostly emotional or feeling issues 5. Compromiser/Neutralizer – Mediates mostly cognitive alternatives 6. Observer – Gives feedback but does not participate in depth 7. Follower/Neuter – Bends with the wind and doesn't really participate |
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Negative and/or Destructive (Anti-Group) Task Roles
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Anti-group behaviors are many and varied and include the following:
1. Scapegoat – a member who is the object of accusations and blame by other members 2. Interrogator – constantly asks questions 4. Peeping Tom – asks other members inappropriate questions 5. Storyteller – takes up valuable time telling long, often irrelevant, stories 6. Joker – uses jokes as smoke screens or to belittle others or self 7. Isolate – are genuinely rejected and ignored; are given little or no attention |
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Group Task Roles: That Which Helps a Group Get the Job Done
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1. Energizer/Initiator – Prods for action; generates enthusiasm
2. Information/Opinion Seeker – Pushes for clarification 3. Information/Opinion Giver – Adds facts, makes suggestions, and shares ideas 4. Elaborator/Coordinator – Furnishes the reality orientation for the group 5. Orienteer/Evaluator – Judges and focuses on the task at hand 6. Procedural Technician – Is similar to the gatekeeper but focuses on mechanics and procedure |
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Therapeutic Factors and Forces
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Curative Factors, according to Irvin Yalom, that make up the process of therapeutic
change are the following (Yalom, 1985): 1. Installation of hope – Hope is the necessary element which allows the client to believe that a change will occur through counseling. Clients need to believe in the benefits of counseling; the degree of expectation of change will usually correlate with encountering positive effects from counseling. 2. Universality – Universality refers to the realization that the client has problems that are similar to those of other people. A client will begin counseling feeling that his/her problems are unique. He/she will feel enormous relief when he/she learns that "I'm not alone.” 3. Imparting of information – The imparting of information takes place as the client learns of different elements involved in the process of psychotherapy. A client will learn a great deal about the group process by experiencing it. His/her knowledge may not be formulated explicitly, but in general terminology, he/she would be able to discuss the process knowingly. 4. Altruism – Altruism is effected as each member of the group comes to see him/herself as important to the group. Some members tend to see the counselor as a "paid" group leader and will listen more readily to another group member. As the counselor conveys the idea that each member is important and is potentially important to the other members, each member gets an ego boost. 5. The corrective recapitulation of the primary family group – A group bears a resemblance to a family, and as such, it contains family patterns and serves as a vehicle for group members to resolve past or present family-related issues. Ways of interacting with family members can be "tested" in the group for their effectiveness. 6. Development of socializing techniques – The group can affect the way we act and function socially. In group, there is appropriate and inappropriate behavior just like in society. In group, a person can deal with his/her problems constructively and enhance his/her social skills in the process. 7. Imitative behavior – Members may copy the behavior of the group leader or other group members. This can be effective because a member sees a model to follow, and this makes him/her realize what elements of another person can be tried in his/her own life. |
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RATIONAL EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY GROUP
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REBT groups seek to replace members' irrational, self-defeating beliefs with rational,
self-enhancing ones. With the leader pointing out applicable unreasonable beliefs, the group examines the problems of one member at a time, confronting, challenging and persuading. |
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Transactional Analysis Groups
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TA started as a specifically
conceived group therapy model with an established framework, structure and nomenclature. Open membership and an honest, egalitarian spirit between therapist and members distinguish TA groups, with each member submitting personal decisions to multiple assessments to learn how to make better choices. |
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GESTALT GROUP
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Gestalt group work is based on the here-and-now. Ensuring they are fully present
themselves, the therapist promotes self-awareness and the ability to take responsibility for one’s actions and behaviors. They must help the group develop the skills necessary to satisfy needs without violating the rights of others or one's own moral standards; and develop the willingness to help others and ask for help when needed, moving from environmental support to internal support. A key concept in Gestalt therapy involves the concept of “contact.” Contact happens when a person interacts with another person or the outside world. Therapy Process Promote awareness in client through: • Insight • Self-acceptance • Knowledge of the environment • Responsibility for choices, actions and behaviors • Paradoxical theory of change • Ability to make contact with others The client is expected to do their own seeing, feeling, sensing and interpreting vs. passively allowing the therapist to give insight and answers. |
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Authoritarian Parents
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Demanding conduct that meets absolute standards, stressing obedience and using harsh
punishments to ensure compliance, authoritarian parents exhibit a high degree of control and little warmth. Children of authoritarian parents are irritable, aggressive and dependent. They often have a limited sense of responsibility, low levels of esteem and poor academic achievement. Parents who consistently use punitive, repressive methods are likely to produce children who are socially withdrawn, hostile and rebellious. |
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Authoritative Parents
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Displaying rational control, warmth and responsiveness and promoting independence,
authoritative parents set clear rules and high standards, meanwhile explaining their rationales for decisions and encouraging discussion with their children. Children of authoritative parents are assertive, self-confident, socially responsible and achievement oriented. They often earn high grades in school. |
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Indulgent-Permissive Parents
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Indulgent-permissive parents are warm and caring but provide little control, make few
demands and are non-punitive. Their children are often impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated and low in achievement and independence. |
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Indulgent-Uninvolved Parents
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Displaying low levels of warmth and control, indulgent-uninvolved parents minimize
the time and effort expended upon their children. Children of indulgent-uninvolved parents have low levels of self-esteem and are often impulsive, moody, aggressive, delinquent and rebellious. |
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Fixed interval
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Reinforcement is repeated at timely intervals (eg, every 10 secs)
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Variable interval
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Reinforcement interval changes (such as reinforcement after 2
seconds, then after 7 seconds, then after 4 seconds and so on) |
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Fixed ratio
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Reinforcement occurs at fixed response intervals (for example, giving
reinforcement after every fifth response) |
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Variable ratio
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Reinforcement happens at a rate tied to the number of responses (the actual number of responses to each reinforcement may fluctuate like payments on a capped variable rate mortgage, but the ratio, on average, stays constant)
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Substance Abuse
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A continued pattern of using
alcohol or drugs. Although it is usually coupled with adverse consequences, the client continues this pattern of substance use. Maladaptive behaviors result. Substance Abuse lacks the component of dependence, an important consideration in diagnosis. |
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Substance Dependence
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Same symptoms are present as
for Substance Abuse, but with greater duration and intensity. The client may describe tolerance, withdrawal or both. Since tolerance indicates the body’s adjustment to a substance, the client may make statements such as, “I need more to get just as high,” or “I am less drunk than other people using the same amount.” If the client attempts to stop substance use, symptoms of |
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Tolerance
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indicates the body’s adjustment to a
substance, the client may make statements such as, “I need more to get just as high,” or “I am less drunk than other people using the same amount.” |
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Withdrawal
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These manifestations include
physical symptoms such as sleep disorders, motoric responses and mood changes. |
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Delirium vs Dementia
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Delirium
rapid reversible •perceptual distortions •disrupted attentional impairment •disoriented Dementia gradual, subtle, insidious degenerative progressive or stable •multiple cognitive impairments •primary disturbance of memory |
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Amphetamines
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Uppers
(uppers, bennies, pep pills) are a group of artificial stimulants. The original drug is called amphetamine, but the group includes dextroamphetamine (dexies), methamphetamine (speed, crystal, meth, crank), and smokable methamphetamine (ice). May cause person to be violent Effects of amphetamines People under the influence of this drug report an increase in energy, cheerfulness and confidence. The drug reduces the need for sleep and suppresses the appetite. The pupils of the eyes usually dilate and the skin becomes very sensitive - a tingling sensation is reported when a user is touched. This is replaced by intense depression, lethargy and irritability when the effects of the drug wear off. Addictive effect of amphetamines Amphetamine users report a need to use more and more of the drug to obtain the same effect for every successive "high", and this places an extra burden on the body and may cause delusions, hallucinations and paranoia, which may develop into full-blown paranoid psychosis. Blood pressure rises alarmingly during use of the drug and heart failure and blood vessel damage may occur. The risk of this occurring is extremely high during strenuous physical activity (like dancing at a rave Amphetamines and Addiction Regular amphetamine users develop tolerance. As their body adapts to the drug, they need larger doses to feel the same effects. After chronic use, even at low doses, users can develop dependence. Cravings can get very intense, and users may go to great lengths to obtain more. They continue to use the drug to avoid the crash they experience when the drug’s effects wear off. Withdrawal from amphetamine use can result in extreme tiredness, disturbed sleep, anxiety, hunger, depression, and suicidal thoughts. |
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Barbiturates
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Barbiturates are a group of drugs that are used by doctors to treat patients suffering from anxiety or who are having trouble sleeping.
Some examples of barbiturates are Seconal®, Nembutal®, Amytal® and Tuinal®. Street names for barbiturates include “reds”, “red devils”, “yellow jackets”, “blue heavens”, “Christmas trees” and “rainbows”. Like tranquilizers and sleeping pills, barbiturates are “downers.” They work by reducing the amount of activity in the brain and central nervous system. This produces a feeling of calm in people who take them. People do become dependent on barbiturates. This means that they begin to “need” the effects barbiturates produce. If they stop taking them suddenly, people who are dependent on barbiturates can experience sleeping problems, restlessness, irritability and even death. |
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Cluster A
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Characterized by coldness, suspicion and odd behavior are the subtypes of Paranoid Personality Disorder, Schizoid Personality Disorder and Schizotypical Personality Disorder.
Within the Paranoid subtype, suspicion is the predominant feature. Unaffected by either praise or criticism, a Schizoid personality is considered cold by others. Actually highly functioning psychotics, Schizotypical personalities are known for their oddness and delusional behaviors. |
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Cluster B
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Subtypes of the cluster characterized by aggression and attention-seeking behaviors are
Antisocial Personality Histrionic Personality Narcissistic Personality Borderline Personality Disorders. With a very high risk for criminal behaviors, the Antisocial personality is reckless and lacks empathy. Given to emotional excesses, the Histrionic personality exhibits a range of responses from anger to sadness to fear, but emotions are shallow. The Narcissistic personality is grandiose and self-important. Although greatly fearing abandonment, the Borderline personality is unable to form stable interpersonal relationships. |
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Cluster C
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Characterized by withdrawal, personality types in the third cluster are
Avoidant Personality Dependent Personality and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality; all are highly dependent and seek to avoid change. Timid by nature, the Avoidant personality fears embarrassment and is deeply affected by criticism. Exhibiting extreme dependency on others, the Dependent personality may be described as clingy. Perhaps characterized as a rigid perfectionist, the Obsessive-Compulsive personality tends toward obsessive- compulsive behaviors. |
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Paranoid
Personality Disorder |
Pattern of distrust and suspiciousness such that other’s
motives are interpreted as malevolent |
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Schizoid
Personality Disorder |
Disinterested in social relationships, socially apathetic
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Schizotypal
Personality Disorder |
Pattern of acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive/perceptual distortions, and behavioral eccentricities
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Antisocial
Personality Disorder |
Pattern of disregard for and violation of the right’s of others
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Borderline
Personality Disorder |
Exhibits abrupt shifts in mood, has a poorly developed self-
image, and demonstrates intense and unstable relationships |
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Histrionic
Personality Disorder |
Pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking
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Narcissistic
Personality Disorder |
an inflated or grandiose sense of self; expects others to see them
as specially gifted |
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Avoidant
Personality Disorder |
Highly sensitive to criticism and rejection that they may
refuse to enter into social relationships |
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Dependent Personality Disorder
a pattern of submissive and clinging behavior related to an excessive need to be taken care of |
Pattern of submissive and clinging behavior related to an
excessive need to be taken care of |
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Obsessive-Compulsive
Personality Disorder |
Characteristics of orderliness, perfectionism, and rigidity
without true obsessions or compulsions |
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Ludwig von Bertalanffy
~ Systems Theory (Family) |
Circular causation factors affect family dynamics
~ Idea that events are related through a series of interacting loops or repeating cycles ~ A set of elements standing in interaction ~ Each element is affected by whatever happens to any other element ~ System is only as strong as its weakest part ~ System is greater than sum of its parts ~ Boundaries are more or less permeable depending upon the amount and type of feedback received |
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Ackerman
(Family Therapy) Psychodynamic |
In a new marriage, a couple brings old family issues into the relationship from parents which disrupts the stability.
Ackerman believed in an interactive style of therapy, moving into a family's space, stirring things up and acting as a catalyst for change |
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James Framo
(Family Therapy) Psychodynamic |
Conflict from family of origin is aced out in current relationships.
~ People are object seeking, hoping to establish satisfying object relationships ~ Conjoint Couples Therapy-->Couples Group Therapy=->then family meetings with different generations |
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Carl Whitaker
(Family Therapy)-Cohesiveness Experiential |
Highly Involved in therapeutic process
~ Techniques and th theory are secondary to process ~ Actively joins family, paying attention to what he himself was feeling and used that to press for changes in the family ~ Designed to challenge old ways of thinking and behaving on the way to new growth ~ Humanistic: Here-and-now Gestalt: Role-playing, emotional confrontation Psychodrama: Sculpting, family drawing ~ How Do People Get In Trouble? Lack of emotional closeness and sharing among family members The needs of the family may be suppressing the rights of the individual Keeping family secrets can lead to the dysfunction of family members Family myths ~Set of beliefs based upon a distortion of historical reality and shared by all family members that help shape the rules governing family dysfunction Mystification ~Concept that many families distort their children’s experience by denying or re-labeling it ~The family infringes upon its individual members’ growth and freedom Personal choice has been comprised Families put on a façade, which restrains its members from being authentic |
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Virginia Satir
(Family Therapy)-Good Communication Humanistic/Experiential |
Families have the resources within themselves to flourish, grow and develop
~ Poor communication blocks healthy functioning ~ Five Styles of Communication. She considered four as dysfunctional and one as functional: Dysfunctional: • Placater: Fearing rejection, they want to please, becoming dependent • Blamer: To cover their own inadequacies and emptiness, they attempt to control others by bullying and attacking their faults • Super Reasonable: (coined Computers) Keeping others at a ‘safe distance’, they depend upon detachment to protect their own feelings skirting emotional issues with intellectual rationalization • Irrelevant or Distractor: Rather than face the situation, they will make the problem go away, pretend it doesn’t even exist, hoping others involved will do the same 1. Often the youngest child falls into this category Functional: • Leveler or Congruent: Telling it like it is, they are honest and genuine ~ Focus on emotional honesty, congruence and systemic understanding ~ |
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Murray Bowen
Systems Theory of Family Therapy Transgenerational |
Transgenerational approach to family therapy
~ Uses genogram to depict family patterns and conflicts ~ 8 Concepts ~Differentiation of Self~ Differentiation is the process of freeing oneself from one's family • Realizing one's own involvement in problematic relationship systems as opposed to blaming others, while still being able to be emotionally related to members • The capacity to think and reflect, instead of responding automatically • The ability to think and act wisely in the face of anxiety ~Triangulation~ • Anxiety is a major influence • The family member with the least differentiation (the most vulnerable) will often be the person most likely to get triangulated within the family • A two-person system is unstable because it tolerates little tension before involving a third person • Two people in a conflict will draw in a third person to try and fix the problem or take sides • A triangle allows the tension to spread • This lets off steam, but freezes conflict in place • As anxiety increases, people experience a greater need for emotional triangles ~Nuclear Family Emotional System~ • Undifferentiated family ego mass • FUSION = families that are emotionally stuck together • Especially noticed in schizophrenic families • Existing family emotional patterns passed on to each generation • They can include: 1. Overt conflict 2. Physical or emotional dysfunction in one spouse 3. Reactive emotional distance and projection of problems onto one or more of the children ~Family Projection Process~ • The method by which emotional projections are passed on from one generation to another • It describes the primary way parents transmit their emotional problems to a child • For example: 1. The child that receives projection will have trouble differentiating 2. This will, in turn, effect his interactions with his own spouse and/or children • The parent focuses on a child out of fear that something is wrong with the child • The parent interprets the child's behavior as confirming the fear • The parent treats the child as if something is really wrong with the child ~Emotional cutoff~ • The way people manage anxiety between generations • People manage their unresolved emotional issues with parents, siblings, and other family members by reducing or totally cutting off emotional contact with them • The greater the emotional fusion between parents and children, the greater likelihood of a cutoff • A person may believe being cut off from the family has solved their issues, however, the problems are dormant and not resolved ~Multigenerational transmission process~ • The way family emotional processes are transferred and maintained over several generations • Passing chronic anxiety from generation to generation ~Sibling position~ • The order of birth on the sibling totem pole • People who grow up in the same sibling position predictably have important common characteristics • For example: 1. Oldest children tend to gravitate to leadership positions 2. Youngest children often prefer to be followers. • Each child has a certain position in the family, which may make them more or less likely to fit some projection of the family ~Societal emotional process~ • The effects of social expectations about classes, ethnic groups, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. on the family • Used early in the field of family therapy to acknowledge the influence of societal pressures/influences |
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Structural Family Therapy
Minuchin |
Structural changes must take place within a family before an individual’s
symptoms can be diminished ~Family interactions reveal the structure and organization of the family ~Family structure is defined as an invisible set of functional demands or rules that organize relationships family members have with one another ~Symptoms are a by-product of structural failings ~Families can be divided into subsystems: • Spousal (husband and wife) • Parental (father and mother) • Sibling (children) • Extended (grandparents and other relatives) ~Boundaries (“emotional barriers”) are formed in each family and serve to protect and develop the integrity of individuals, the subsystems and the family itself |
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Strategic Family Therapy
Haley Madanes Weakland Jackson Weim |
Basic Principles
Three different models: • Mental Research Institute (MRI) • Haley and Madanes approach • Milan Model – Concentrating on Anorexia Nervosa and Schizophrenia ~Strategic family therapy focuses on the process It is clever, prescriptive and systematic • It can also be considered manipulative ~The basic belief: People are always communicating • Communication is either: 1. "Report" (what happened) or 2. "Command" (do something) a. Command messages are patterned as family rules ~Family Homeostasis • Rules maintain family homeostasis and keep things the same • Negative Feedback: Conservative efforts to keep things from changing ~Circular Causality • Does not look for underlying motives for behavior • Instead, points to circular causality (a change of communication patters) in the form of feedback loops Circular questioning ~Asking several family members the same question about the same relationships ~Feedback Loops • Are chains of stimulus and response • Problems are made worse when a problem behavior elicits a response that makes it continue or worsen • "Positive feedback loop" is the center-piece of the strategic model Types of change include: • First order change: When a behavior in the system changes • Second order change: When the rules that affect a behavior change • Rules are changed by re-framing interpretation of a behavior ~Family rules around hierarchical structure are often a cause of family problems |
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Masters and Johnson
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Sex Therapy
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Social Constructionist/Brief Solution Focused
Steve deShazer |
II. Overview – Brief Solution Focused
A. The solution-focused model is based on the belief that when the focus is drawn to exceptions or solutions to problems, change is more likely. B. Problem cause is de-emphasized, and therapy tends to be brief and goal-focused. III. Goals of Treatment – Brief Solution Focused A. The goal of solution-focused therapy is to help clients resolve their complaint by helping them change their focus. B. This leads to a different perspective and a greater level of satisfaction with their lives. C. The therapist believes that this perspective becomes apparent once clients begin moving toward their desired goal. D. It is necessary, therefore, for a goal or goals to be determined early in therapy. |
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Narrative Family Therapy
White and Epson |
People tell themselves stories that organize and shape their experiences and shapes their behavior
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Cybernetics
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Study of a controlled system by observing the flow of information,
feedback and communication. |
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Family Sculpting
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Can be used to demonstrate current family interactions or past members of the family to arrange others
• Graphic means of portraying each person’s perceptions of the family and his/her place in it • Virginia Satir uses ropes and blindfolds to dramatize constricting roles families get trapped in |
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Structural Family Therapy
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Therapeutic approach directed or realigning the family organization or structure in order to alter dysfunctional transactions and clarify subsystem boundaries
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