• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/101

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

101 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

What is the pelvic girdle?

The pelvic girdle (or pelvis) is the bony structure which attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton and which surrounds and protects the structures of the pelvic cavity.

Where do the hip bones fuse together?

Acetabulum

What is the pelvic floor?

The pelvic floor supports the structures of the pelvic cavity and separates them from the perineum below.

Describe the 3 main parts of the pelvic floor.

- Pelvic diaphragm: a muscular sling composed of two main muscles- the levator ani and the coccygeus (of which there is a right and left of each).


- Perineal membrane: thick connective tissue membrane creating the deep perineal pouch.


- Muscles of the deep perineal pouch: skeletal muscles (paired) surrounded by the perineal membrane.

What is the perineum?

The perineum lies below (superficial to) the pelvic floor and is a diamond-shaped area sitting between the upper thighs. It contains the external genitalia and the urogenital and anal openings.

Name the two triangles of the perineum?

The perinum is divided into two triangles: the anterior urogenital triangle and the posterior anal triangle.

What is the superficial perineal pouch?

The superficial perineal pouch of the urogenital triangle contains erectile tissues and superficial skeletal muscles which vary slightly between females and males to accommodate the different external genitalia and urogenital openings.

Deep to the labia are _______ and the _________

glands, vestibular bulbs

How is the testis suspended within the scrotum?

By a spermatic cord.

What does the spermatic cord consist of?

Testicular artery


Pampiniform venous plexus


Nerves and lymphatics


Ductus (vas) deferens (part of the reproductive tract)

The testis and the spermatic cord are then surrounded by the ____________________ which contracts to draw the testes closer towards the body when exposed to cold temperatures.

cremaster muscle

What is the testes?

The testes, which reside outside the body within the scrotum, produce sperm. Each testis is composed of numerous seminiferous tubules in which sperm production occurs. The seminiferous tubules converge into straight tubules which feed the rete testis which, in turn, gives rise to efferent ductules. The efferent ductules feed sperm into the epididymis. Interstitial (Leydig) cells surrounding the seminiferous tubules produce the hormone testosterone.

What is the epididymis?

The epididymis is the start of the male reproductive tract. It is divided into three components: head, body & tail, all of which form a highly coiled tube. Sperm are stored here and will mature and gain motility. ©

Vas (ductus) deferens

The vas, or ductus, deferens' transport sperm from each epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. It ascends from the epididymis within the spermatic cord to enter the pelvic cavity. Once in the pelvic cavity the vas deferens' run superiorly then posteriorly around the bladder. Behind the bladder, each vas deferens terminates in a swollen ampulla which merge to form the ejaculatory duct.

Ejaculatory duct

The ejaculatory duct runs through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.

Urethra

he urethra is responsible for conveying either urine (from the bladder) or semen (from the reproductive tract) to the outside of the body. It ends in the urethral opening at the tip of the glans penis.

Three regions? urethra

Prostatic urethra: portion passing through the prostate gland.


Membranous urethra: portion passing through the pelvic floor.


Spongy urethra: portion passing through the erectile tissue of the penis.

Penis

The penis is a combined copulatory & excretory organ. It's reproductive function is to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract.

What is the penis composed of?

It is composed of erectile tissue that surrounds the spongy urethra.

Describe the structure of the penis?

The root of the penis is anchored to the perineum via the erectile tissues and associated superficial muscles. The erectile tissue continues into the shaft (body) of the penis which hangs freely from the perineum and ends in an enlarged tip called the glans penis. The shaft of the penis is surrounded by skin which forms a loose cuff around the glans penis (this is the prepuce or foreskin).

Describe the 2 types of erectile tissue.

Corpus spongiosum: a single column of erectile tissue immediately surrounding the urethra and forming the glans penis.


Corpora cavernosa: paired columns of erectile tissue making up the majority of the penis.

What is semen?

Semen is an alkaline, milky white substance composed of sperm (10%) and the secretions from the accessory glands (90%). The gland secretions serve to nourish, support, protect and activate the sperm.

Name the key components of semen.

- Fructose: provides energy (ATP) for sperm.


- Prostaglandins: thin the cervical mucus and stimulate reverse peristalsis of the uterus.


- Enzymes & hormones: enhance sperm motility.


- Immune chemicals: suppress female immune response and destroy bacteria.


- Coagulating enzymes: cause coagulation of the semen after ejaculation. This allows the semen and sperm to stick to the vaginal walls and reduce loss from the vagina

Name the 3 types of accessory glands.

Seminal glands


Prostate gland


Bulbourethral glands

Seminal glands.

These are found on the posterior surface of the bladder with ducts that merge at the ampullae of the vas deferens' to open into the ejaculatory duct. They produce an alkaline fluid that makes up ~60% of semen volume. This fluid contains fructose, ascorbic acid, coagulating enzymes and prostaglandins. It generally enhances sperm motility and the fertilizing ability of the sperm.

Prostate glands.

Prostate gland: the single prostate gland sits just inferior to the bladder and surrounds the urethra (prostatic urethra) after it exits the bladder. It produces a milky, slightly acidic fluid that makes up ~30% of semen. Its secretions contain citrate and various enzymes that generally help to activate sperm.

Bulbourethral glands.

Bulbourethral glands: the paired bulbourethral glands lie just inferior to the prostate gland within the deep perineal pouch of the pelvic floor and open via ducts into the spongy urethra at the bulb of the penis. These glands produce a thick, clear mucus that lubricates the glans penis and neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra. These glands secrete their mucus before semen ejaculation.

What makes up the female reproductive system?

The female reproductive system consists of the gonads (ovaries), reproductive tract, external genitalia and the breasts.

Ovaries

The ovaries, which are not connected to, but are closely associated with the reproductive tract, produce the female gamete- the ovum. The production of ova begins in utero, continues from puberty through adulthood and ends with menopause. Ova production from puberty onwards occurs via a monthly cycle in association with follicular development. During each monthly cycle a developing follicle supports an oocyte until ovulation; in addition the follicular cells produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian tubes

Two fallopian tubes extend from the top of the uterus towards either ovary. The open ends of the fallopian tubes appear to cover the ovaries, but are not directly connected to the ovaries.

Name the 3 main parts of the fallopian tubes.

Infindibulum: funnel-shaped, open end of the tube that hangs over the ovary. The infundibulum ends in a number of fimbrae.


Ampulla: thick-walled, swollen middle portion of tube that is the most common site of fertilization.


Isthmus: the narrowest portion of the tube before it connects to the uterus.

What is the function of the fallopian tubes?

The fallopian tubes form the beginning of the reproductive tract and function to transport an ovulated oocyte from the ovaries into the uterus. This transport involves peristalsis and the movement of cilia on the surface of tubal cells to help 'sweep' the egg along the tract.

Uterus.

The uterus is a thick-walled muscular sac that has two main functions: retention and nourishment of a fertilized ovum for embryonic and fetal development and expulsion of the fetus at birth.

Parts of the uterus.

Fundus: uppermost portion of uterus containing the bulk of smooth muscle tissue and smooth muscle pacemaker cells.


Body: largest portion of the uterus surrounding the uterine cavity.


Cervix: narrow, columnar outlet of the uterus composed of a thick layer of connective tissue. The cervix consists of a small canal between two openings:internal cervical os: opening between the uterine body and cervical canalexternal cervical os: opening between the cervical canal and vagina

Uterine wall layers.

Perimetrium: outermost layer of serous membrane (this is actually the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity).


Myometrium: thick middle layer of smooth muscle found in the fundus and body- generates the force needed to expel the baby during labour & birth.


Endometrium: inner epithelial layer that undergoes cyclical changes to allow a fertilized ovum to 'burrow' in to the uterine wall to access maternal sources of nutrients (e.g. glandular secretions and blood).

What is gametogenesis?

Gametogenesis refers to the process in which the gametes are produced. As there are two gametes- egg (ova) and sperm- there are two gametogenesis processes- spermatogenesis & oogenesis. Both of these processes involve mitotic AND meiotic cell division to generate haploid (n)daughter cells from diploid (2n) parent cells.

Mitosis.

The first phase of gametogenesis in which there is complete replication of all chromosomes in the diploid (2n) parent cells (gonadogonia) followed by cell division into two genetically identical diploid daughter cells (primary gonadocytes).

Meosis I

During the first phase of meiosis, all chromosomes in the primary gonadocytes are completely copied to generate sister chromatids. Maternal and paternal sister chromatids of the same chromosome number align and one sister chromatid of each pair will 'swap' segments of DNA before the maternal & paternal sister chromatids are divided into two haploid (n) daughter cells (secondary gonadocytes).

Meiosis II

Meiosis IIThe second phase of meiosis in which the secondary gonadocytes divide into two haploid (n) daughter cells by separating the sister chromatids. Each daughter cell now contains a unique half set of the individuals DNA.

Oogenesis diagram

Oogenia - x2 primary oocytes - secondary oocyte and 1st polar body - ovum and second polar body.

Spermatogenesis diagram

Spermatogonia - typa a daughter cell and type b daughter cell primary spermacyte - x2 secondary spermacytes - x2 spermatids - spermatazoa

When does oogenesis occur?

In utero

When do oogonia divide into primary oocytes?

4-7 months gestation

Meiosis I then begins in all primary oocytes, but halts- all primary oocytes will now remain stalled in meiosis I until __________.

puberty

What happens to the primary oocytes at puberty?

At the beginning of puberty only about 250,000-400,000 primary oocytes remain, from which just a handful will re-start meiosis I, but only one primary oocyte will continue development, completing meiosis I to generate a secondary oocyte and the first polar body. The secondary oocyte then begins meiosis II, but halts just prior to ovulation. The ovulated egg is therefore a secondary oocyte stalled in meiosis II.

Meiosis II will only re-start and complete if the ovulated secondary oocyte is _________________

fertilised by a sperm

What happens to the secondary oocyte upon fertilisation?

Upon fertilization the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form the ovum and a second polar body. The ovum and sperm then share their genetic material to create a new diploid (2n) cell (the zygote).

When does spermatogenesis begin?

puberty

What happens at puberty?

Spermatogenesis begins at puberty with spermatogonia undergoing mitosis to generate two daughter cells- Type A daughter cell and Type B daughter cell. The Type A daughter cell will stay within the outer wall of the seminiferous tubule to carry on mitosis while the Type B daughter cell becomes a primary spermatocyte which will undergo meiosis. In this way, both mitosis and meiosis can occur on a continual basis.

All spermatids are viable cells which then undergo a process called ___________________ in which they morphologically transform into spermatozoa.

spermiogenesis

What happens during spermiogenesis?

During spermiogenesis the cell elongates, sheds excess cytoplasm, generates a flagella and rearranges cytoplasmic contents into three distinct regions.

Describe the 3 regions.

Head: contains the nucleus and is capped by the acrosome, a portion that contains hydrolytic enzymes that enable penetration of the female oocyte (egg).


Midpiece: contains numerous mitochondria for ATP production.


Tail: flagellum that provides locomotion for the sperm.

What happens after spermiogenesis?

Spermatids are then moved into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and transported to the epididymis within testicular fluid (produced by sustentacular (Sertoli) cells). Spermatogenesis continues throughout the rest of a man's life, continuously producing new sperm.

Name the 2 female reproductive cycles.

Ovarian and uterine

Ovarian cycle

Ovarian cycle: changes that occur within the ovary, including oogenesis and follicular development.

Uterine cycle

Uterine cycle: changes that occur to the endometrium of the uterus.

What does the ovarian cycle promote?

The ovarian cycle promotes the development of a single follicle containing a single haploid oocyte.

During childhood, primary oocytes were surrounded by _______________ to form __________________________

follicular cells, primordial follicles.

Name the 2 phases to the ovarian cycle.

Follicular and Luteal

When does the follicular phase occur?

days 1-14

When does the luteal phase occur?

days 14-28

What happens during the follicular phase?

Follicular phase (days 1-14): occurs prior to ovulation and involves the development of the primordial follicle into a tertiary follicle. The oocyte restarts & completes meiosis I, then begins meiosis II and halts. The developing granulosa and thecal cells of the follicle produce estrogens.

What happens during the luteal phase?

Luteal phase (days 14-28): occurs after ovulation and involves the development of the corpus luteum which produces estrogens and progesterone. If fertilization of the ovulated oocyte occurs, the corpus luteum will remain and continue to produce these hormones, but if fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum will degenerate into the corpus albicans and hormone production falls.

The uterine cycle involves the proliferation & growth of the _________________, including it's blood vessels and endometrial glands.

endometrium

What is the endometrium of the uterus composed of?

The endometrium of the uterus is composed of a simple columnar epithelium bound to a thick lamina propria; it is a thick mucosal layer containing numerous glands and divided into two zones (strata)

Name the 2 zones of the endometrium.

Stratum basalis


Stratum functionalis

Stratum basalis

Stratum basalis: sits adjacent to the myometrium forming the base layer of the endometrium which remains relatively constant over time.

Stratum functionalis

Stratum functionalis: this functional layer undergoes the cyclical changes, fluctuating between growth & development of the layer and loss (shedding) of most of the layer.

The endometrium is supplied by two arterial branches from the _______ arteries of the myometrium. The ________ arteries supply the stratum basalis while the _________ arteries supply the stratum functionalis.

radial, straight, spiral

Name the 3 phases of the uterine cycle.

Menstrual


Proliferative


Secretory

When does the menstrual phase occur?

days 1-5

What happens during the menstrual phase?

Shedding of the stratum functionalis occurs as the spiral arteries constrict, decreasing blood flow. The ischemia leads to arterial rupture and degeneration of the tissue of the functional zone, resulting in the detachment and shedding of blood and tissue from the functional zone, which passes out of the uterus through the cervical os into the vagina.

When does the proliferative phase occur?

days 6-14

What happens during the proliferative phase?

Regrowth of the functional zone is initiated. There is proliferation of stratum functionalis tissue, the spiral arteries grow in length and begin to coil and the endometrial glands enlarge and lengthen. Towards the end of this phase, mucus in the cervix will thin and form channels.

When does the secretory phase occur?

There is further proliferation and 'thickening' of the stratum functionalis while the spiral arteries elaborate and become highly coiled and the endometrial glands begin secreting glycogen. During this phase the cervical mucus becomes thick and forms a plug. This phase will be sustained if fertilization occurs.

Both gametogenesis and the female reproductive cycles are regulated by hormones of the _________________

HPG axis

This cascade of hormones involves the release of ________ from the hypothalamus, ______________ from the anterior pituitary gland and the release of ___________________ from the gonads.

GnRH, LH & FSH, gonadal hormones (testosterone or estrogens & progesterone)

The male HPG axis is regulated by?

testosterone levels

Male HPG axis: Gonadal activity is imitate by what 2 anterior pituitary hormones?

LH and FSH

Male HPG axis: LH

LH: stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to produce and secrete testosterone.

Male HPG axis: FSH

FSH: stimulates the spermatogonia to begin mitotic cell division and increases testicular cell receptivity to testosterone.

Testosterone promotes?

- spermatogenesis and spemiogenesis in the testes


- libido and related behaviors (CNS effects)


- bone & muscle growth


- establishment & maintenance of secondary sex characteristics


- maintenance of male reproductive structures

Testosterone alos promotes the release of?

inhibin

What is inhibin?

Another gonadal hormone which controls the rate of spermatogenesis through inhibiting GnRH & FSH. Inhibin levels increase when sperm count is high and decrease when sperm count is low.

Female HPG axis: LH

LH: stimulates the restart of oogenesis, ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum & progesterone production

Female HPG axis: FSH

FSH: stimulates follicular development and gonadal hormone secretion (estrogens & inhibin)

What is the equivalent of testosterone in females?

Estrogens

What do oestrogen do?

Estrogens have similar effects as testosterone throughout the female body and additionally stimulates endometrial growth, including growth of the spiral arteries and endometrial glands. Estrogens also soften the cervix and thin cervical mucus.

What does progesterone do?

Progesterone maintains endometrial growth, dilates the spiral arteries and stimulates secretion of glycogen from the endometrial glands. Progesterone also causes thickening of cervical mucus.

Sexual arousal and erection in males. Parasympathetic activity stimulates?

the release of nitric oxide (NO) within the penis. NO causes vasodilation of the arterioles within the erectile tissues, allowing increased blood flow into the penis which engorges the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosusm. Engorgement of the cavernosa compresses venous drainage, thus maintaining the engorgement, while engorgement of the spongiosum pulls and holds open the urethra.

Sexual arousal and erection in females. Parasympathetic activity stimulates?

increases blood flow to the clitoris (leading to engorgement), breasts, vaginal mucosa and vestibular glands. This enhances activity of the vestibular glands and vaginal mucosa, resulting in increased lubrication of the vagina.

Orgasm and ejaculation in males.

Orgasm is a wide-spread sensational experience felt in the body that, in males, accompanies ejaculation. Ejaculation is the propulsion of semen from the male reproductive tract, induced by a massive discharge of sympathetic impulses which cause contraction of the reproductive tract and accessory organs to propel their contents into the urethra. This is followed by rapid contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle of the penis which propels semen through and out the urethra.

Orgasm and ejaculation in females.

In women who obtain an orgasm, the sympathetic activity is very similar, resulting in contraction of the reproductive tract and bulbospongiosus muscle. Some women may also experience an ejaculation of body fluidsduring orgasm.

What is capacitation

Prior to engaging with the oocyte, the sperm undergo a transformation which enables them to swim faster and harder towards the egg. This process is known as capacitation and it must occur for a sperm to be able to fertilize the oocyte.

How long does capacitation take?

7-9 hours

In addition to increasing sperm motility, involves the breakdown of the _____________ membrane in preparation for enzyme release.

acrosomal

When a sperm binds to the zone pellucida it causes the _________________ to occur, in which the acrosome completely breaks down to release all it's enzymes.

acrosomal reaction

Acrosomal enzymes digest the _______________, creating holes- it may take many sperm to create a hole through the ____________ through which a sperm can gain access to the oocyte cell membrane.

zona pellucida

The response of the oocyte to sperm penetration that then prevents any other sperm from attaching is called the _________________

cortical reaction

What does the newly formed zygote secrete?

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

What is hCH?

A pregnancy hormone that will sustain the corpus luteum and enhance it's estrogen and progesterone production, thereby suspending the ovarian & uterine cycles for the duration of the pregnancy.