Midterm 2

Front 1

stressors

Back 1

specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

Front 2

stress

Back 2

the physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors

lecture: a physical and psychological response to an event that we judge to be threatening or challenging

Front 3

health psychology

Back 3

the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

Front 4

chronic stressors

Back 4

sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly

Front 5

environmental psychology

Back 5

the scientific study of environmental effects on behaviour and health

Front 6

fight-or-flight response

Back 6

an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action

Front 7

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Back 7

a three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered

Front 8

(GAS phase 1) alarm phase

Back 8

body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to the threat

lecture: the first stage of GAS during which the HAP axis is quickly mobilized and catecholamines and cortisol activate sympathetic system and get the body ready to act

Front 9

(GAS phase 2) resistance phase

Back 9

body adapts to its high state of arousal as it tries to cope with the stressor

lecture: in response to prolonged threat, the organism tries to cope, while long-term effects of cortisol continue to suppress the regular biological functions

Front 10

(GAS phase 3) exhaustion phase

Back 10

body's resistance collapses

lecture: the body can no longer deal with the stress and becomes highly susceptible to infection, aging, organ damage, and even death

Front 11

telomeres

Back 11

caps at the ends of each chromosome that protect the ends of chromosomes and prevent them from sticking to each other

Front 12

telomerase

Back 12

an enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes

Front 13

immune system

Back 13

a complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances

Front 14

lymphocytes

Back 14

produce antibodies that fight infection

Front 15

Type A behaviour pattern

Back 15

a tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings

lecture: described as ambitious and driven, but also controlling and very hostile and aggressive

Front 16

primary appraisal

Back 16

the interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not

lecture: the first evaluation of whether an event is threatening, challenging, or can be ignored

--> threatening or challenging events will trigger the sympathetic system

Front 17

secondary appraisal

Back 17

determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not

lecture: determining whether the event is something that you can control or something that you should ignore

Front 18

threat

Back 18

a stressor you believe you might not be able to overcome

Front 19

challenge

Back 19

a stressor you feel fairly confident you can control

Front 20

burnout

Back 20

a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

lecture: long-term exhaustion and loss of motivation caused by chronic stress

Front 21

repressive coping

Back 21

avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint

Front 22

rational coping

Back 22

facing the stressor and working to overcome it

Front 23

acceptance (rational coping)

Back 23

coming to realize that the stressor exists and cannot be wished away

Front 24

exposure (rational coping)

Back 24

attending to the stressor, thinking about it, and even seeking it out

Front 25

understanding (rational coping)

Back 25

working to find the meaning of the stressor in your life

Front 26

reframing

Back 26

finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat

Front 27

stress inoculation training (SIT)

Back 27

a reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation

lecture: a technique that stimulates real-life stressful situation in order to prepare you to positively deal with them

Front 28

meditation

Back 28

the practice of intentional contemplation

Front 29

relaxation therapy

Back 29

a technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body

lecture: a therapy that reduces muscle tension and activates our parasympathetic system, including reducing heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure

Front 30

relaxation response

Back 30

a condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure

Front 31

biofeedback

Back 31

the use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function

Front 32

social support

Back 32

aid gained through interacting with others

Front 33

religiosity

Back 33

affiliation with or engagement in the practices of a particular religion

Front 34

spirituality

Back 34

having a belief in an engagement with some higher power, not necessarily linked to any particular religion

Front 35

sickness response

Back 35

a coordinated, adaptive set of reactions to illness organized by the brain

Front 36

psychosomatic illness

Back 36

an interaction between mind and body that can produce illness

Front 37

somatic symptom disorders

Back 37

a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about their symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to their symptoms or health concerns

Front 38

sick role

Back 38

a socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness

Front 39

malingering

Back 39

feigning medical or psychological symptoms to achieve something they want

Front 40

two kinds of psychological factors influence personal health

Back 40

health-relevant personality traits

health behaviour

Front 41

commitment

Back 41

an ability to become involved in life's tasks and encounters rather than just dabbling

Front 42

control

Back 42

the expectation that their actions and words have a causal influence over their lives and environment

Front 43

challenge

Back 43

undertaking change and accepting opportunities for growth

Front 44

self-regulation

Back 44

the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

--> putting off immediate gratification for longer-term gains

Front 45

illusion of unique invulnerability

Back 45

a systematic bias toward believing that they are less likely to fall victim to the problem than are others

Front 46

biopsychosocial model of disease

Back 46

the idea that the causes and effects of disease are a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors

Front 47

four most reliable stress triggers

Back 47

1. startle reaction: the automatic reaction our body has to a sudden or surprising stimulus

2. psychological uncertainty: that feeling of not knowing what the correct behaviour is or what will happen next

3. frustration/pressure: feeling that a goal is important but not being able to accomplish it

4. goal conflict: being stuck between two goals

Front 48

approach-approach conflict

Back 48

wanting two opposing desirable things

Front 49

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Back 49

choosing between two bad things

Front 50

approach-avoidance conflict

Back 50

choosing a goal that has both good and bad consequence

Front 51

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Back 51

a complex network activated by stress responses that triggers the release of stress hormones and activates the sympathetic system

Front 52

ACTH

Back 52

peptide secreted by pituitary gland that, in turn, stimulates the adrenal glands and activates the flow of stress hormones

Front 53

in response to ACTH, the adrenal gland will release two types of hormones, together known as catecholamines:

Back 53

epinephrine/adrenaline: involved in activating the sympathetic (GO!) system

--> primarily involved in regulating liver and kidneys

norepinephrine: the hormone secreted by the adrenal gland involved in activating the sympathetic (GO!) system

--> has strong psychoactive effects in the brain

Front 54

cortisol

Back 54

hormone secreted by the adrenal gland in response to stress triggers, including long-term ones

- regulate energy used by the body by increasing the amount of sugar in your blood

- suppresses the immune system, digestion, reproduction systems, and growing of new tissues

- effects are slow and build up over time and stay in blood stream much longer

Front 55

good stress

Back 55

in the short-term the stress response is critical for survival, as it allows our bodies to act rapidly and with more energy

Front 56

bad stress

Back 56

when stress is prolonged or triggered by many different stimuli, it can lead to exhaustion

Front 57

coronary heart disease

Back 57

clogging of vessels that bring blood to the heart, eventually leading to a heart attack

Front 58

peptic ulcer

Back 58

the lesion in the stomach lining that causes significant pain and discomfort

Front 59

sleep occurs through five stages:

Back 59

Stage 1 - light sleep: feeling awake but dozy and relaxed

Stage 2 - normal sleep: beginning of sleep and easy to wake up

Stage 3 and 4 - deep sleep: very rejuvenating sleep, hard to wake

Rapid-Eye-Movement (REM): stage of sleep resembling wakefulness during which dreaming occurs

Front 60

defensive coping

Back 60

psychological reactions to stress that seek to minimize the negative effects of stress by re-interpreting negative events as somehow positive

Front 61

denial of reality (defensive coping)

Back 61

refusing to accept reality

Front 62

overcompensation (defensive coping)

Back 62

releasing stress in one situation by overgratifying in another

Front 63

learned helplessness

Back 63

passive behaviours produced by continued exposure to unavoidable or aversive events

Front 64

catharsis

Back 64

release of stress and emotional tension through other means

Front 65

flash-bulb memories

Back 65

incredibly vivid and specific memories tie to specific, intense, often negative events that we experience

Front 66

self-control

Back 66

the ability to regulate behaviour and focus on positive goals and avoid negative ones

Front 67

oxytocin

Back 67

a stress-sensitive hormone produced by the hypothalamus that is especially important for sexual arousal, social bonding, social recognition, orgasms, and other social functions

Front 68

post-traumatic stress disorder

Back 68

a clinically diagnosable disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, anxiety, and insomnia that lingers for weeks after a traumatic event

Front 69

constructive/rational coping

Back 69

choosing to face the stressor, rather than ignore it

Front 70

problem-focused coping (external)

Back 70

coping by finding a solution to the problem

Front 71

emotion-focused coping (internal)

Back 71

in cases we cannot change a situation, we should constructively deal with our emotions and make sure we don't let stress get the best of us or that we stop perceiving the event as stressful

Front 72

optimism

Back 72

a personality trait associated with having a positive outlook on events

--> can protect psychological well-being in presence of bad health

Front 73

grit/hardiness

Back 73

a personality trait associated with commitment in the face of failure, a strong sense of internal control, and willingness to accept challenges

Front 74

aerobic exercise

Back 74

exercise that increases heart rate and oxygen intake

--> significantly reduces stress

Front 75

mindfulness meditation

Back 75

a popular type of meditation that combines relaxation with actively training your mind to attend to, accept, and not judge your emotions, thoughts, and sensations

Front 76

social psychology

Back 76

the study of the causes and consequences of sociality

lecture: the science of the causes and consequences of social behaviour (both good and bad)

Front 77

social behaviour

Back 77

how people interact with each other

Front 78

social influence

Back 78

how people change each other

Front 79

social cognition

Back 79

how people think about each other

Front 80

aggression

Back 80

behaviour with the purpose of harming another

lecture: behaviour done with intention of physically, mentally, or socially hurting or killing another living thing

Front 81

frustration-agression hypothesis

Back 81

animals aggress when their desires are frustrated

Front 82

group

Back 82

a collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others

Front 83

cooperation

Back 83

behaviour by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit

lecture: the behaviour of two or more individuals who work together for mutual benefit

Front 84

prejudice

Back 84

a positive or negative evaluation or another person based on their group membership

lecture: attitudes - both good and bad - about people or things that belong to a certain group or category. Prejudice usually comes from stereotypes.

Front 85

discrimination

Back 85

a positive or negative behaviour of another person based on their group membership

lecture: behaviours - positive and negative - that are influenced by prejudice towards a certain group or category

Front 86

common knowledge effect

Back 86

the tendency for group discussions to focus on information that all members share

Front 87

group polarization

Back 87

the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme or polarizing than any member would have made alone

Front 88

groupthink

Back 88

the tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony

lecture: a phenomenon where groups reach consensus on a decision not because the decision is correct or best, but because it maintains consensus in a group.

Front 89

deindividuation

Back 89

when immersion in a group causes people to become less concerned with their personal values

lecture: a phenomenon where individuals become less aware and concerned with their individual values and instead become more aware and concerned with the group's values

Front 90

diffusion of responsibility

Back 90

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Front 91

social loafing

Back 91

the tendency for people to expend less effort when in a group than alone

Front 92

bystander intervention

Back 92

the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation

Front 93

altruism

Back 93

behaviour that benefits another without benefiting oneself

lecture: behaviours that are done for the pure benefit of others

Front 94

kin selection

Back 94

the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives

Front 95

reciprocal altruism

Back 95

behaviour that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future

Front 96

mere exposure effect

Back 96

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

lecture: our tendency to like something the more frequently we're exposed to it

Front 97

passionate love

Back 97

an experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction

lecture: the initial stage of a romantic relationship involving intense feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and sexual attraction

Front 98

companionate love

Back 98

an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner's well-being

lecture: the later stage of a romantic relationship that involves trust, affection, and a concern for the partner's well-being

Front 99

social exchange

Back 99

the hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favourable ratio of costs to benefits

Front 100

comparison level

Back 100

cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserve or could attain in another relationship

Front 101

equity

Back 101

a state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal

Front 102

social influence

Back 102

the ability to control another person's behaviour

Front 103

hedonic motive

Back 103

people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid experiencing pain

Front 104

approval motive

Back 104

people are motivated to be accepted and to avoid being rejected

Front 105

accuracy motive

Back 105

people are motivated to believe what is right and to avoid believing what is wrong

Front 106

norms

Back 106

customary standards for behaviour that are widely shared by members of a culture

Front 107

norm of reciprocity

Back 107

the unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them

lecture: when somebody is generous to another person, they should be rewarded and the favour should be returned

Front 108

normative influence

Back 108

another person's behaviour provides information about what is appropriate

Front 109

door-in-the-face technique

Back 109

an influence strategy that involves getting someone to deny an initial request

lecture: make an impossibly huge request first, and when the person declines, make a smaller one

Front 110

conformity

Back 110

the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it

lecture: the tendency to do what others do simply because you are in the same group

Front 111

obedience

Back 111

the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it

Front 112

attitude

Back 112

an enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event

lecture: enduring feelings and beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Front 113

belief

Back 113

an enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event

lecture: enduring knowledge about the object, person, or event

--> beliefs often cause our attitudes

Front 114

informational influence

Back 114

another person's behaviour provides information about what is there

Front 115

persuasion

Back 115

a person's attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person

lecture: changing somebody's beliefs and desires by appealing to them psychologically

Front 116

systematic persuasion

Back 116

the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason

lecture: persuading somebody through reason, logic, and sound arguments (targets beliefs)

Front 117

heuristic persuasion

Back 117

the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habitat or emotion

lecture: persuading somebody by appealing to their emotions, habits, or even appealing to them implicitly (targets attitudes)

Front 118

foot-in-door technique

Back 118

making a small request and then following it with a larger request

lecture: make a small request first, and, once the person complies, make a bigger one

Front 119

cognitive dissonance

Back 119

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

lecture: the highly negative feeling we experience when our attitudes and/or beliefs conflict with each other or with our recent behaviour

Front 120

social cognition

Back 120

the process by which people come to understand others

Front 121

stereotyping

Back 121

the process by which people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which others belong

--> inaccurate, overused, self-perpetuating, automatic

Front 122

self-fulfilling prophecy

Back 122

the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave

Front 123

stereotype threat

Back 123

the fear of confirming the negative beliefs that others may hold

Front 124

perceptual confirmation (/confirmation bias)

Back 124

the tendency for people to see what they expect to see

lecture: the tendency for people to seek out and notice evidence that agrees with their beliefs, desires, and stereotypes

Front 125

subtyping

Back 125

the tendency for people who receive disconfirming evidence to modify their stereotypes rather than abandon them

Front 126

attributions

Back 126

inferences about the causes of people's behaviours

Front 127

situational attributions

Back 127

person's behaviour was caused by some temporary aspect of the situation in which it happened

Front 128

dispositional attributions

Back 128

person's behaviour was caused by a relatively enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way

Front 129

correspondence bias

(lecture: fundamental attribution error)

Back 129

the tendency to make a dispositional attribution when we should instead make a situational attribution

Front 130

actor-observer effect

Back 130

the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviours while making dispositional attributions for the identical behaviour of others

lecture: the fact that we commit the fundamental attribution error when we are judging others, but we rarely decide that our bad behaviour is because of our dispositions

Front 131

bystander effect

Back 131

a phenomenon where individuals fail to help a victim when others are around

--> the more people around, the less likely people are to themselves help

Front 132

theory of mind

Back 132

the ability to represent the beliefs and desires of people who are not you

Front 133

right temporal-parietal junction (rTPJ)

Back 133

a brain region that is selectively active when we think about the thoughts of others

Front 134

social norms

Back 134

perceived rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group of people

Front 135

social schemas

Back 135

representations of how social groups work and the kinds of things they can provide

Front 136

intimidation

Back 136

changing somebody's beliefs and desires through dominance and social status

Front 137

hazing

Back 137

a set of rituals that involve abusing, harassing, and humiliating a person as an initiation for joining a group

Front 138

elaboration likelihood model

Back 138

model of persuasion that argues that people can be influenced through one of two "routes"

Front 139

expertise

Back 139

when not motivated to attend to the argument, we will frequently just agree if the person arguing is an expert

Front 140

implicit priming

Back 140

a method of persuasion that subtly suggests an idea, belief, or concept to the participant and affects their subsequent behaviour without their realization

Front 141

monogamy

Back 141

a form of relationship where an individual has only one partner throughout their life

Front 142

sexual monogamy

Back 142

a system in which an individual only has sex with one partner throughout their life

Front 143

social monogamy

Back 143

a system in which an individual cohabitats and cooperates in gathering resources for one partner throughout their life

Front 144

sexual dimorphism

Back 144

the physical differences between males and females

Front 145

attractiveness and desirability relies on five things

Back 145

proximity

similarity

facial symmetry

body shape

age

Front 146

triangular theory of love

Back 146

a theory positing that love falls along three factors - intimacy, passion, and commitment - and that the most stable relationship is when you have all three

Front 147

social exchange hypothesis

Back 147

the idea that people stay in relationships only as long as they believe that the benefits outweigh the costs

Front 148

equity (relationships)

Back 148

the idea that each person must be contributing as much has the other (cost-benefit is the same for both people)

Front 149

comparison level (relationships)

Back 149

in a stable relationship, the cost/benefit of available alternatives cannot significantly exceed the cost/benefit of the current relationship, or the relationship ends

Front 150

social group

Back 150

a collection of individuals who interact with one another and share similar goals and a sense of unity

Front 151

in-group

Back 151

the group of people that we believe are in our group because they share some trait

Front 152

out-group

Back 152

the group of people that we believe are not and cannot be in our group because they do not have the requisite trait

Front 153

benefits of groups (social facilitation) (3)

Back 153

- combine effort to do more than any single person can

- divide labour so that each person can become specialized

- pass knowledge to each other over time

Front 154

costs of groups (4)

Back 154

1. loafing and exploitation: in a large group, specialization means that some people can do less than others, and still gain the benefits

2. group-think: when a group is making a decision, they must all agree on a single path to take. As a result, consensus is more important than being right.

3. conformity and deindividuation: within a group, individual differences can be dangerous. If somebody is different from the rest, it could endanger the entire group.

4. reduced cooperation with other groups: by perceiving other groups as "different" and worse than them, very strong in-groups are prone to prejudice, discrimination, and aggressions towards other groups.

Front 155

diffusion of responsibility

Back 155

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others or belong to a large group

Front 156

stereotype

Back 156

Beliefs about typical behaviours and characteristics of a certain group or category. They can be positive or negative.

Front 157

group fundamental attribution error

Back 157

believing that everyone in a group that's not yours acts the way they do because of their disposition, not situation

Front 158

out-group homogeneity

Back 158

believing that all members of an out-group are exactly the same, while all members of your group are very diverse

Front 159

tying in-group to self-worth

Back 159

when a person ties their group membership to one specific group, any threat to a group is a threat to themselves; when under threat, people strongly discriminate against other groups

Front 160

generalization

Back 160

an inference that a particular phenomenon will share properties or traits with the broader category to which it belongs

Front 161

Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT)

Back 161

a psychological test that measures the degree of implicit and automatic stereotyping

Front 162

stereotype threat

Back 162

the phenomenon whereby when people are reminded of a stereotype that applies to them, they perform on a test consistent with the stereotype

Front 163

contact hypothesis

Back 163

prejudice is reduced when we interact and cooperate with people from groups different than our own, including through shared goal and social support

Front 164

hostile aggression

Back 164

aggressive behaviour intended to physically harm another person

Front 165

instrumental aggression

Back 165

aggressive behaviour intended to acquire an object, person, or social status with no deliberate intention of harming another person

Front 166

relational aggression

Back 166

aggressive behaviour intended to hurt another person's social status or relationships

Front 167

dominance

Back 167

males will frequently fight each other, sometimes to the death, for increasing their social status and getting access to females they can mate with

--> females typically do this through relational ways

Front 168

eliminating competition

Back 168

when a new male becomes dominant, he will frequently kill the young children of the previously dominant male

Front 169

protecting resources

Back 169

groups of animals will fight other groups to protect their territory and resources

Front 170

culture of honour

Back 170

many cultures around the world emphasize the importance of social status; these cultures have a social norm whereby any insult to one's honour must be responded to with aggression

Front 171

tit-for-tat strategy

Back 171

for every action you do (altruism or cheat) I will do the exact same thing next time we interact