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24 Cards in this Set
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5. Umayyads
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The Umayyads were a dynasty of Muslim Caliphs who ruled from 661 to 750 from its seat in Damascus. The dynasty was founded by Muahmiyah after the assassination of Ali in 661 and experienced rapid external expansion until the rule of Hisham when the Arab army experienced defeats by the Byzantines, the Franks, and the Transoxians. The Umayyad dynasty was finally overthrown by the Abbasids in 750 at the Battle of the Zab, and lost control of all their territory except for the Iberian Peninsula.
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Abbasids
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The second dynasty of Muslim caliphs, who ruled from Baghdad (after 762) after the defeat of the Umayyads in 750 at the Battle of the Zab. It flourished for two centuries but slowly declined with the dissolution of imperial power to local amirs who only nominally acknowledged the caliph. Its decline was hastened by the Fatimid revolt and incursions by the Seljuk Turks until its rule was finally extinguished in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols.
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8. Iqta’
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The iqta’ was a system of land grants adopted by the Abbasid Caliphate in the ninth century. The iqta’ was temporary and the soldier did not own the land but was merely entitled to collect taxes on it. This provided the caliph a way to compensate his warriors in lieu of a wage when tax revenue was inadequate or campaigns failed to provide sufficient plunder.
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11. Sipahi
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The Sipahi were cavalry employed by the Ottoman Empire. In return for providing soldiers during a campaign, they were granted a timar, a grant of land from which they could collect income. They represent the decentralized nature of the early Ottoman Empire and its reliance on tribal warlords in contrast to the centralization and professionalism of the Janissaries
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13. Devshirme
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A process of recruitment used by the Ottomans to create an imperial army and bureaucracy loyal to the sultan alone. They systematically collected Christian children from the Balkans, converted them to Islam, and educated them. The most intellectually promising children were trained as scribes and officials while the others became members of the Janissaries. Though essentially slaves to the sultan, those collected by the devshirme enjoyed great influence and some rose to the highest positions within the empire.
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16. Kuchak Kaynarja
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A treaty named after the city in which it was signed in 1774, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. The Ottomans were forced to give several concessions to the Russians including territory in Crimea, Black Sea ports, and the right for the Russians to protect Orthodox Christians who were subjects of the Ottoman Empire
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17. Qizilbash
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Meaning “red head,” it referred to the Turcoman tribesmen in northern Persia who pledged their support to the Sufi master Safi al-Din in the first half of the fifteenth century and wore distinctive red headdresses. In 1501 they helped the Isma‘il, who claimed descent from Safi-al Din to proclaim himself Shah in Tabriz and found the Shi’i Safavid Dynasty.
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18. Shah Isma‘il I
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Founder of the Safavid Empire who lived from reigned from 1501 to 1520. Claiming descent from Safi ad-Din, he received the support of the Qizilbash and was able to conquer the area that comprises modern Iran. His westward conquest was halted by a decisive defeat by the Ottomans in 1511, and the Ottoman-Persian border was created. Shah Isma’il was also responsible for converting Persia to Shi‘ism.
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19. Shah Abbas I
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Safavid ruler from 1571 to 1629 who undertook steps to centralize all aspects of government and expand his empire. He broke the power of the Qizilbash, replacing it with a professional army, created a bureaucracy and moved the capital to Isfahan, greatly increasing its grandeur with massive building projects. Furthermore, with his newly created army he was able to expand westward into Ottoman territory and dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain.
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23. Amir Abdul Rahman Khan
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Placed on the Afghan throne by the British in 1880; he disliked infrastructure such as roads and railroads, considering Afghanistan’s impenetrability the only way to ensure its continued independence. He organized the country into provinces, placed the army at the disposal of the provincial governments to ensure collection of taxes, ruthlessly crushed rebellions and uprisings, created an effective intelligence service, and displaced tribes who opposed his rule, notably the Pashtuns.
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26. Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha
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An Ottoman officer who helped end French occupation of Egypt during Napoleon’s expedition. In the ensuing power vacuum, he seized power and was appointed the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1805 which lasted until his death in 1849. He broke the power of the mamluks and helped suppress the Wahhabi Rebellion, seizing greater Syria in the process until he was forced to relinquish it by the European great powers. Economically, he began the growing of cotton as a cash crop and used these funds as well as forced labor to industrialize the country and build infrastructure.
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29. Lord Cromer
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Evelyn Baring, the 1st Earl of Cromer was the Consul General of Egypt in 1879 and from 1883 to 1907. He effectively administered Egypt from this position and is largely responsible for overcoming Britain’s initial hesitancy to occupy Egypt. Because of his constant intrusion into Egyptian politics and affairs, he was opposed by Egyptian nationalists whose protests eventually resulted in his dismissal.
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31. Tanzimat Era
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The first period of liberal reform, tanzimat directly translates to ‘regulations’ in Turkish. This culture began with the writing of the Ottoman constitution of 1876. Characterized by two decrees, the Hatt-I Sharif and Islahat Fermani, the promoted equality and ‘security for life, honor and property’.
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32. Hatt-i Sharif/Islahat Fermani
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Decleration to Euro audience and princes, Set of reforms promised to the people of the Ottoman Empire in 1839, many western ideologies found in the document. The goal of the document was to modernize the government toward a more western structure, because it was thought that the west’s newly gained power was derived from its governmental structure. Wanted to compete with west. Some of the problems with these reforms were that they were from the upper class, and established a new kind of Elites.
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33. Nasir al-Din Shah
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Nasir al-Din Shah (1829-1896) was the shah of Persia and was heavily influenced by Europe, proclaimed religious toleration, granted trade concessions to Russia and the UK, and established a postal service and a bank. He gave the monopoly of tobacco to a private company but took it back after facing resistance to his opposition. Nasir was assassinated and succeeded by his son.
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34. Reuter Concession
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Signed by a Qajar Shah in 1872, it granted exclusive rights to Baron Julius de Reuter exclusive rights to build street cars and railroads, establish a national bank, extract minerals and exploit national forests in return for a proportionally small sum of money and the promise of a small percentage of future profits. The shah almost immediately cancelled it due to opposition from both the Persian people and the Russian government. Due to the cancellation, the Persian government was forced to pay an indemnity of forty thousand British pounds.
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38. Jamal al-Din “al-Afghani”
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A political activist for Pan-Islam who lived from 1839 to 1897. Though origianlly a Shi‘i Muslim from Iran, he took the title “al-Afghani” to appeal more to Sunnis in the Ottoman and Arab world. He opposed imperialism and his message advocated Pan-Islam and technological modernism. Eventually exiled from Egypt in 1871, he moved to Paris where he published a newspaper and attempted to refute intellectuals who argued that Islam is wholly opposed to science, technology, and rational-thought.
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39. Muhammad Abduh
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Was an Egyptian religious scholar and reformer who is regarded as the founded of Islamic Modernism. Educated in the Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo, he was student of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Abduh combined journalism and politics and combined with al-Afghani in publishing “The Firmest Bond” which promoted anti-British views. Abduh preached that morality and law must be adapted to modern conditions in the interest of the common good.
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42. Husayn-McMahon Correspondence
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A series of negotiations between the British High Commissioner in Egypt and Sharif Husayn Hashemite of Mecca in 1915 and 1916 promising him an Arab state consisting of all Arab speaking lands east of Egypt except for Lebanon in return for military support during the war. Although Husayn upheld his side of the agreement by instigating the Arab revolt, the British rescinded on their promises after, as they had concluded several contradictory agreements about the distribution of these lands.
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46. San Remo Conference
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A conference in San Remo, Italy, in 1920, attended by the entente powers after the Great War to reconcile the many conflicting agreements concluded during the war and finally resolve the distribution of the administration of the regions of the dissolved Ottoman Empire.
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Anglo Afghan Wars
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A series of wars stretching from 1838 to 1880, between Afghanistan and British India. In 1838, Lord Auckland invaded Afghanistan to support the weak Shah, and following his eventual dismissal the British army began to withdraw only to be massacred on their retreat back to India. The British again invaded in 1879 in response to the rejection of a diplomatic mission to the Shah. The British occupied the country, and installed Amir Abdul Rahman Khan “The Iron Amir” as ruler.
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Urabi Revolt
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The Urabi Revolt, named after one of its officers who was eventually named minister of war in the provisional government, was a rebellion in 1881 against the newly appointed shah as a response to financial bankruptcy, high taxes, and European influence in the government and military. As the new government threatened Britain’s influence in the western Mediterranean and the route to India through the Suez Canal, the British invaded and occupied Egypt, whose consul general effectively administered Egypt until 1952.
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iranian constitutional reform
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The Iranian Constitutional Revolution was instigated by the beating of two merchants in Tehran for not submitting to price regulations. Mass uprising took place and the protesters claimed bast in a local mosque. The uprisings spread to other cities, and Muzaffar al-Din Shah was forced to sign a constitution in 1905, the first established constitution in the Muslim world. The constitution was dismantled in 1911 by Muhammad Ali Shah, who bombed parliament and ended constitutional rule.
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Arab Revolt
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An insurrection from 1916 to 1918 instigated by Sharif Husayn Hashemite of Mecca with the intention of establishing an Arab state of all Arabic speaking lands east of Egypt. Though there were some regular forces, most of the fighting was conducted by irregulars under the command of Lawrence and Feisal, who helped tie up tens of thousands of troops who might have been deployed elsewhere.
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