Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
216 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
How many cells in human body?
|
5 trillion
|
|
|
Who developed vaccine for rabies in 1884?
|
Louis Pasteur
|
|
|
T/F: some cells are immune to infection by viruses.
|
False
|
|
|
Infectious particles are either ---- or ------.
|
Active
Inactive |
|
|
Size of largest virus
|
250 nm
|
|
|
What are satellite viruses composed of?
|
Genetic material only
|
|
|
What are prions composed of?
|
Proteins only
|
|
|
More than ----- bacterial viruses can fit inside an average bacterial cell.
|
2000
|
|
|
Viruses are -------.
|
Ultramicroscopic
|
|
|
What nucleic acid is found in viruses?
|
Either DNA or RNA (not both)
|
|
|
Listeria is a strain of ------.
|
Bacteria
|
|
|
3 places listeria is found
|
Sil
Water Animal feed |
|
|
What foods are most often contaminated by listeria?
|
Deli meats
|
|
|
3 categories of people most at risk from listeria?
|
60 or older
Pregnant women People with diabetes |
|
|
Hepatitis B has --- genes.
|
4
|
|
|
Herpes has ------ genes.
|
100s
|
|
|
Positive-sense RNA
|
Single-stranded RNA genomes of viruses that can be translated into protein
|
|
|
Negative-sense RNA
|
Genomic RNA that has to be converted ton proper form before protein synthesis
|
|
|
Capsids are made of -----.
|
Capsomers
|
|
|
Protective outer shell is made of --- protein subunits.
|
Identical
|
|
|
2 types of capsids
|
Helical
Isocohedron |
|
|
1 example of Helical capsid
|
Tobacco mosaic virus
|
|
|
3 examples of enveloped helical capsid viruses
|
Influenza
Rabies Measles |
|
|
2 examples of icosahedron capsid viruses
|
Poliovirus
Adenovirus |
|
|
2 examples of enveloped icosahedron capsid viruses
|
HIV
Herpes virus |
|
|
The presence of an ----- makes a virus complex.
|
Envelope
|
|
|
A simple virus is ------.
|
Naked
|
|
|
Virus envelope
|
Covering external to capsid
|
|
|
Viral components
|
Capsid
Nucleocapsid Envelope (some) |
|
|
Other substances found in virus particles
|
Enzyme
Ribosome (arenaviruses) tRNA (retroviruses) |
|
|
Satellite viruses
|
Defective forms of a virus
Depend on other viruses for replication |
|
|
2 examples of satellite viruses
|
Adeno-associated viruses (AAV)
delta agents |
|
|
Adeno-associated virus can only replicate in cells infected with -----.
|
Adenovirus
|
|
|
Delta agent
|
Naked strand of RNA expressed only in presence of hepatitis B virus and can worsen liver damage
|
|
|
A virus can invade a host cell only thru making an --------- with specific molecule on host cell membrane
|
Exact fit
|
|
|
Rabies virus adsorbs to ---- receptors of neurons.
|
ACH
|
|
|
HIV attaches to ----- proteins on -- cells in the blood.
|
CD4
T cells |
|
|
Hepatitis B only infects ----- cells. This is an example of a specific host molecule.
|
Liver
|
|
|
Polio infects the ---- and ---- cells of primates. This is an example of an intermediate host molecule.
|
Intestinal
Nerve |
|
|
Rabies infects ----- cells in all mammals. This is an example of a broad host molecule.
|
Various
|
|
|
2 ways virus may infect host cells
|
Endocytosis
Direct fusion |
|
|
Endocytosis
|
Entire virus is engulfed by the cell
Enzymes dissolve envelope and capsid Then releases nucleic acid into cytoplasm |
|
|
Direct fusion
|
Envelope merges with cell membrane, liberating nucleocapsid into cell interior
|
|
|
Viral DNA replicates in host cell's ------.
|
Nucleus
|
|
|
Viral RNA replicates in host cell's -----.
|
Cytoplasm
|
|
|
Lysis
|
Rupturing of host cell to release mature viruses
|
|
|
Budding/exocytosis
|
Envelope viruses are released in this manner from cell's cytoplasm
|
|
|
As host cells are damaged due to viral processes, host cells fuse and form ---------.
|
Multinucleate syncytia
|
|
|
Respiratory syncytial virus is named for ----.
|
Process where host cells fuse & become multinucleate
|
|
|
Persistent infections
|
When cell maintains longterm carrier relationship with virus
|
|
|
Examples of viruses prone to persistent infections
|
Measles
Herpes simplex Herpes zoster |
|
|
Herpes simplex
|
Results in cold sores and genital herpes
|
|
|
Herpes zoster
|
Results in chicken pox and shingles
|
|
|
Transduction
|
Occurs in prokaryotic cells
Way that genes for toxin production & drug resistance are transferred between bacteria |
|
|
Another name for transduction is ---.
|
Lysogenic conversion
|
|
|
3 techniques for cultivating and identifying animal viruses
|
Tissue culture
Using bird embryo Live animal inoculation |
|
|
Transformation
|
Occurs in eukaryotic cells
Way that genes for toxin production & drug resistance are transferred between bacteria |
|
|
3 characteristics of transformation
|
1. Increased growth rate
2. Change in cell's surface molecules 3. Capacity to divide for an indefinite period |
|
|
Oncoviruses
|
Mammalian viruses capable of initiating tumors
|
|
|
Prions are/are not viruses.
|
Are not
|
|
|
Diseases associated with prions are called -----.
|
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs)
|
|
|
What are prions made of?
|
Proteins ONLY
|
|
|
Prions
|
Infection causing proteinaceous material
|
|
|
Prions are ----- to increased temperatures.
|
Resistant
|
|
|
Best way to eliminate prion
|
Incineration - including the host
|
|
|
3 Examples of TSEs
|
Scrapie (sheep)
Mad cow disease (cattle) Wasting disease (elk, deer & mink) |
|
|
Two ways prions spread
|
Direct contact from host to host
Eating contaminated food (brain tissue) |
|
|
Prion infection causes buildup of tiny protein fibrils in -----.
|
Brain tissue
|
|
|
how many genes in human DNA
|
30k - 40k
|
|
|
how many nucleotides in human DNA
|
3 billion
|
|
|
ligase
|
enzyme that seals sticky ends of DNA together by rejoining the phosphate-sugar bonds cut by endonuclease
|
|
|
restriction endonuclease
|
cutter enzyme used to remove specific DNA sequences
|
|
|
4 stages of genetic engineering
|
1. restriction endonuclease chops gene from DNA
2. select vehicle or vector 3. cloning 4.screening |
|
|
2 most common vectors used in genetic engineering
|
1. plasmids
2. viruses |
|
|
plasmid
|
small circular DNA that replicates independently
|
|
|
cloning takes place in -------.
|
bacterial cells
|
|
|
Screening removes the cloned plasmids from the ----------.
|
bacteria
|
|
|
3 antibiotics used for screening
|
ampicillin
tetracycline penicillin |
|
|
3 characteristics of cloning vectors
|
1 replication takes place somewhere on host where host DNA polymerase can be used
2. vector must accept DNA of the desired size 3. Vectors usually confer resistance gene to host |
|
|
4 vectors
|
1. Plasmid
2. Cosmid 3. BAC 4. YAC |
|
|
Plasmid accepts up to ---- base pairs.
|
10k
|
|
|
Cosmid accepts up to ---- base pairs.
|
45k
|
|
|
BAC accepts up to ---- base pairs.
|
300k
|
|
|
YAC accepts up to ---- base pairs.
|
1M
|
|
|
Plasmid
|
Small circular nonessential DNA
|
|
|
Cosmid
|
Plasmid/virus combination
|
|
|
BAC
|
Bacterial artificial chromosome
|
|
|
YAC
|
Yeast artificial chromosome
|
|
|
Different genes call for different number of -----.
|
Nucleotijdes
|
|
|
7 characteristics of cloning host
|
1. Fast growth rate
2. Nonpathogenic 3. Genome that is mapped 4. Capable of accepting plasmid or bacteriophage 5. Maintains foreign genes thru multiple generations 6. Will secrete high yield of proteins from expressed foreign genes 7. Can be grown in lg quantities using ordinary available culture media (ex: nutrient broth) |
|
|
PCR
|
Polymerase chain reaction
|
|
|
DNA polymerase was first isolated from therophilic bacteria called ----.
|
Thermus aquaticus
|
|
|
Therophilic means ----.
|
Likes high temps - so the DNA polymerase won't denature when heated
|
|
|
3 steps of PCR
|
1. Denaturation
2. Cool 3. Extend |
|
|
Nutrition
|
Process whereby an organism acquires chemical substances from its environment to use for cellular activities
|
|
|
Essential nutrients
|
Those the organism can't produce itself and which it requires for survival
|
|
|
2 categories of nutrient sizes
|
1. Macro
2. Micro |
|
|
2 types of nutrients
|
1. Organic
2. Inorganic |
|
|
6 elements that make up 96% of cell
|
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Phosphorus 5. Sulfur 6. Nitrogen |
|
|
Microbial cytoplasm is ----% water.
|
70
|
|
|
3 main components of microbial cytoplasm
|
1. Water
2. Proteins 3. Inorganic salts |
|
|
Cytoplasm is important in --- and -- functions of the cell.
|
Structural
Enzymatic |
|
|
---- is the major source element in all organic compounds and several inorganic ones.
|
Hydrogen
|
|
|
3 roles of hydrogen
|
1. Maintain pH
2. Form hydrogen bonds between molecules 3. Source of free energy in oxidation/reduction reactions of respiration |
|
|
The main inorganic source of phosphorus is ---- from ----- in rocks and oceanic mineral deposits.
|
Phosphate
Phosphoric acid |
|
|
Heterotrophs obtain carbon from --------.
|
Other living organisms
|
|
|
Autotrophs are not ------- upon other living organisms.
|
Nutritionally dependent
|
|
|
Main source of nitrogen
|
Atmosphere
|
|
|
---% of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere.
|
79
|
|
|
3 primary sources of nitrogen for heterotrophs
|
1. DNA
2. RNA 3. ATP |
|
|
The only form of nitrogen that can be combined with carbon to synthesize amino acids
|
Ammonia NH3
|
|
|
----% of the atmosphere is made up of oxygen.
|
20
|
|
|
Oxygen is a major component in what 4 things?
|
1. Carbs
2. Lipids 3. Nucleic acids 4. Proteins |
|
|
In the environment, sulfur is found in ----.
|
Rocks
|
|
|
Sulfur is an essential component of some ---- and -----.
|
Vitamins
Amino acids |
|
|
2 amino acids that contain sulfur
|
1. Cysteine
2. Methionine |
|
|
Chemotroph gains energy from ---.
|
Chemical compounds
|
|
|
Phototroph gains energy from -----.
|
Photosynthesis
|
|
|
2 types of chemical transport across cell membrane
|
1. Passive
2. Active |
|
|
3 types of passive transport
|
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis 3. Facilitated diffusion |
|
|
5 environmental factors that influence microbes
|
1. Temp
2. O2 requirements 3. pH 4. Electromagnetic radiation 5. Barometric pressure |
|
|
3 cardinal temperatures
|
1. Minimal
2. Maximal 3. Optimal |
|
|
Optimal temperature promotes ----.
|
Fastest growth rate
|
|
|
3 temperature adaptation groups
|
1. Psychrophiles
2. Mesophiles 3. Thermophiles |
|
|
Psychrophile
|
Optimal temp is below 15C
|
|
|
Mesophile
|
Optimal temp is between 20C and 40C
|
|
|
Thermophile
|
Optimal temp is above 45C
|
|
|
Most ----- are mesophiles.
|
Human pathogens
|
|
|
As oxygen is utilized, it's transformed into ----- products called ------.
|
Toxic
Free radicals |
|
|
4 free radicals
|
1. Singlet oxygen
2. Superoxide ion 3. Peroxide radical 4. Hydroxyl radical |
|
|
Example of enzyme that neutralizes free radicals
|
Superoxide dismutase catalase
|
|
|
If a microbe cannot deal with toxic oxygen, it's forced to live in an ----- habitat.
|
Oxygen-free
|
|
|
7 categories of oxygen requirement
|
1. Aerobe
2. Obligate aerobe 3. Facultative anaerobe 4. Microaerophic 5. Anaerobe 6. Obligate anaerobe 7. Aerotolerant anaerobe |
|
|
Aerobe
|
Organism that uses oxygen and that can detox
|
|
|
Obligate aerobe
|
Organism that can't grow without oxygen
|
|
|
Facultative anaerobe
|
Organism that uses oxygen but can live in it's absence
|
|
|
Microaerophic
|
Organism that requires only a small amount of oxygen
|
|
|
Anaerobe
|
Organism that doesn't use oxygen
|
|
|
Obligate anaerobe
|
Organism that lacks enzymes to detoxify oxygen
|
|
|
Aerotolerant anaerobe
|
Organism that doesn't use oxygen but can survive in its presence
|
|
|
2 types of ecological associations among microbes
|
1. Symbiotic
2. Nn-symbiotic |
|
|
3 types of symbiotic relationships
|
1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism 3. Parasitism |
|
|
In a symbiotic association, organisms live in a ---- nutritional relationship.
|
Close
|
|
|
In mutualism, both organisms are ---- and both ----- from the association.
|
Dependent
Benefit |
|
|
In commensalism, the commensal member ----- and the other member------.
|
Benefits
Not harmed |
|
|
Non-symbiotic organisms are ----- and have -----.
|
Free-living
No relationship |
|
|
2 types of non-symbiotic associations
|
1. Synergistic
2. Antagonistic |
|
|
Synergism
|
Members cooperate and share nutrients
|
|
|
Antagonism
|
Some members are inhibited or destroyed by others
|
|
|
Microbial biofilm
|
Complex organized layers of organisms attached to a substrate by an extracellular matrix
|
|
|
What dominate the structure of most natural environments on earth?
|
Biofilms
|
|
|
Quorum sensing
|
Process where microbes communicate and cooperate in the formation and function of biofilms
|
|
|
4 stages of the Population Growth Curve ( PGC)
|
1. Lag
2. Exponential growth 3. Stationary 4. Death |
|
|
Lag phase of PGC
|
Microbes adjust to new environment
Lttle growth |
|
|
Growth phase of PGC
|
Maximum growth takes place as long as nutrients are available and environment remains favorable
|
|
|
Stationary phase of PGC
|
Rate of cell growth = rate of cell death
|
|
|
Death phase of PGC
|
Population dies off as cell waste increases and nutrients decrease
|
|
|
Turbidometry
|
Simplest method of analyzing population growth
|
|
|
What instrument is used to determine turbidity?
|
Spectrophotometer
|
|
|
Viruses that consist only of a nucleocapsid are considered --- viruses.
|
Naked
|
|
|
The core of every virus particle always contains -----.
|
Either DNA or RNA
|
|
|
Helical and icosahedron are terms used to describe the shape of a virus -----.
|
Capsid
|
|
|
Viruses have these 4 characteristics
|
1. Definite shape
2. Genes 3. Ability to infect host cells 4. Ultramicroscopic size |
|
|
Viruses do not have -----.
|
Metabolism
|
|
|
T/F: Vectors often contain a gene conferring resistance to their cloning host, in order to detect cells harboring the plasmid.
|
True
|
|
|
------ is confirmed when the host cell produces the desired protein.
|
Transformation
|
|
|
DNA can be clipped crosswise at selected positions by using enzymes called ------.
|
Restriction endonuclease
|
|
|
Geneticists can make complementary DNA copies of messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA by using -----.
|
Reverse transcriptase
|
|
|
Enzymes break/ form ---- bonds.
|
Covalent
|
|
|
Enzyme
|
Biological catalyst that increases rate of chemical reaction by decreasing reaction activation energy
|
|
|
Enzymes are/ are not permanently altered during the reaction
|
Are not
|
|
|
Enzymes serve as the ----- for the substrate.
|
Physical site
|
|
|
Simple enzyme
|
Protein alone
|
|
|
Conjugated enzyme
|
Protein and nonprotein molecules
|
|
|
Coenzymes and cofactors help to -------- enzymes.
|
Stabilize
|
|
|
E + S --> ES --> E + P
|
Enzyme and substrate produce product and enzyme left intact
|
|
|
Operon
|
Set of genes regulated as a single unit
|
|
|
2 types of operons
|
1. Inducible
2. Repressible |
|
|
Inducible operon
|
Off unless Switched on by substrate
|
|
|
Repressible operon
|
Switched on until synthesized product turns it off
|
|
|
Lactose operon
|
Inducible gene regulated in bacteria. Repressor prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing unless lactose is present. Lactose binds with repressor, repressor is removed from gene, and RNA transcriptase can transcribe proteins to break down lactose. When all lactose has been broken down, repressor clamps back onto gene.
|
|
|
Arginine operon
|
Repressible group of genes that is turned off when excess arginine is present. Arginine binds to the repressor, which clamps onto the operator, blocking synthesis of additional arginine.
|
|
|
2 types of bacterial genetic control
|
1. Enzyme repression
2. Enzyme induction |
|
|
2 ways to control enzymatic activities
|
1. Competitive inhibition
2. Noncompetitive inhibition |
|
|
Exoenzymes
|
Enzymes that are transported extracellularly to break down large food molecules or harmful chemicals
|
|
|
3 examples of exoenzymes
|
Cellulase
Amylase Penicillinase |
|
|
Endoenzymes
|
Enzymes retained within the cell
|
|
|
Constitutive enzymes
|
Always present, always produced in equal amounts, regardless of amount of substrate (ex: enzymes that break down glucose)
|
|
|
Metabolism
|
Sum of all chemical reactions and physical workings of cell
|
|
|
2 types of chemical reactions
|
1. Anabolism
2. Catabolism |
|
|
Anabolism
|
Process that forms larger molecules from smaller ones - requires energy input
|
|
|
Catabolism
|
Process that breaks down molecules - releases energy
|
|
|
Cells manage energy in the form of ------- that make or break bonds and transfer electrons.
|
Chemical reactions
|
|
|
Endergonic reaction
|
Consumes energy
|
|
|
Exergonic reaction
|
Releases energy
|
|
|
As nutrients are broken down, energy from chemical reactions is temporarily stored in ------- molecules.
|
Phosphate
|
|
|
3 ways ATP can be formed
|
1. Substrate level phosphorylation
2. Oxidative phosphorylation 3. Photophosphorylation |
|
|
Substrate level phosphorylation
|
Transfer of phosphate group from phosphorylated substrate to ADP
|
|
|
Oxidative phosphorylation
|
Series of redox reactions occurring during respiration pathway
|
|
|
Photophosphorylation
|
ATP formed using energy of sunlight
|
|
|
ATP
|
Adenosine triphosphate
|
|
|
The use and replenishment of ATP is a ------- in active cells - the removal of the terminal phosphate releases ------.
|
Constant cycle
Energy |
|
|
High energy carrniers
NAD + e ---> FAD + e ---> NADP + e ---> |
NADH
FADH2 NADPH |
|
|
Bioenergetics
|
Study of mechanism of cellular energy release and use
|
|
|
3 series of pathways of glucose catabolism
|
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle 3. Respiratory chain, electron transfer |
|
|
Glycolysis
|
Glucose ---> pyruvic acid
|
|
|
Different species produce different ---- from pyruvic acid.
|
Byproducts
|
|
|
Clostridium produces ----- from pyruvate.
|
Butyric acid
|
|
|
Yeasts produce --- from pyruvate.
|
Ethanol
|
|
|
Streptococcus and lactobacillus produce --- from pyruvate.
|
Lactic acid
|
|
|
Acetobacterium produces --- from pyruvate.
|
Acetic acid
|
|
|
Enterobacter produce --- from pyruvate.
|
2,3 butanediol
|
|
|
Propionibacterium produces --- from pyruvate.
|
Propionic acid
|
|
|
Streptococcus pyogenes produces -----, which digests blood clots and apparently assists in the ------.
|
Streptokinase
Invasion of wounds |
|
|
Pseudomonas aeruginesa is a ---- pathogen, which produces --- and ---- - increasing the severity of -----.
|
Respiratory and skin
Elastase Collagenase Lung disease and burn infections |
|
|
Clostridium perfringens is the agent in -----, synthesizing ------, which damages----- and causes -----.
|
Gas gangrene
Lecithinase C Cell membrane Tissue death |
