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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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dogma of biology
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DNA --> RNA --> Protein
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transcription
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the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA
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Identify the enzyme that makes RNA.
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RNA polymerase
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translation
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the process whereby genetic information coded in the RNA directs the formation of a specific protein; usually occurs at a ribosome in the cytoplasm
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Which can be used an enzyme and why, DNA or RNA?
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RNA only because it is single-stranded.
DNA is only an information system. |
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Finish this description of DNA.
_______ on the outside, _________on the inside. |
PHOSPHATES on the outside,
BASES on the inside. |
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DNA is ______-stranded and RNA is _______-stranded.
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DNA is DOUBLE-stranded and RNA is SINGLE-stranded.
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Describe the direction of DNA strands. (2)
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Goes in opposite directions (anti-parallel)
One is 5'----3' and other is 3'-----5' |
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Describe the bonds that DNA strands together.
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Strands held by Hydrogen bonds
(A-T) = 2 H-bonds (G-C) = 3 H-bonds |
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Of these two, which bond is harder to break?
(A-T) or (G-C) |
(G-C) because it is held together with 3 H-bonds
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What base does RNA use instead of base T?
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RNA uses base U.
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Why is RNA like proteins?
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It is flexible and can be folded into a 3D shape, just like proteins.
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How many rings wide is a DNA?
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3-rings wide (uniform width)
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origin of replication
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where DNA starts to unwind into 1 parent strand and 1 daughter strand
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Identify the 6 enzymes of replication.
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Helicase
SSBP (single stranded binding protein) Gyrase Primase DNA polymerase DNA ligase |
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helicase
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unwinds DNA
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SSBP (single stranded binding protein)
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keeps DNA separated long enough to be duplicated
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gyrase
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relieves stress while double-stranded DNA is being unwound by helicase
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primase
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primes short strands of RNA
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DNA polymerase
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makes DNA 5'----3' (in this direction always)
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DNA ligase
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connects fragments of DNA together w/ covalent bonds; also connects the Okazaki fragments on 3'----5'
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Identify the leading strand.
Identify the lagging strand. |
5'----3 = Leading
3'----5' = Lagging |
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What direction is RNA made?
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5'---3'
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Where does DNA replication process get its energy? Explain.
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The energy is built within, sort of.
Every time a nucleotide is added, two phosphates are released and energy is released. |
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semiconservative replication
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the old strand of DNA unites with a new strand to reform a double helix in the
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promoter site
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bind to RNA polymerase and initiates transcription; tells where transcription needs to start/which portions need to be transcribed
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sigma factor
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In bacteria, it is a subunit that helps RNA polymerase recognize and bind to the promoter site.
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What is the purpose of RNA polyermase during transcription?
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RNA polymerase runs down the DNA copying it into RNA
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termination site
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a (G-C) rich loop that acts like a speed bump and knocks RNA polymerase off and takes transcribed RNA with it
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What happens to the DNA after RNA polymerase runs into and is knocked off by the termination site?
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DNA winds back up and transcription is over.
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Identify the 3 types or RNA.
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rRNA
tRNA mRNA |
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rRNA
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used to make ribosomes (in combo w/ ribosomal proteins)
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tRNA
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a small RNA molecule that "translates" a codon in mRNA by bringing in its corresponding amino acid during protein synthesis
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mRNA
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contains the message for the protein
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tRNA is a small RNA molecule. How many nucleotide bases does it have?
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About 100 bases
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How many bases equals 1 amino acid?
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3 bases = 1 amino acid
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Why is the genetic codon chart referred to as being degenerate?
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EACH codon triplet codes for ONLY 1 amino acid, but an amino acid can be coded for by MORE THAN ONE codon.
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polycistronic
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type of gene organization where 1 mRNA can code for multiple proteins; common in bacteria and other prokaryotes
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What 3 things are required before translation can begin (in prokaryotes)?
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mRNA
tRNA Small & large subunit of ribsome |
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During translation, protein grows _(#)_ amino acid(s) long at a time until it reaches a __________.
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During translation, protein grows ONE amino acid(s) long at a time until it reaches a STOP CODON.
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During translation, what happens after protein reaches the stop codon?
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The completed protein falls off and the ribosome falls apart.
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monocistronic
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type of gene organization where 1 mRNA codes for only 1 protein; common in eukaryotes
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Identify the process in which mRNA is not modified.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
mRNA is not modified.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) |
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Identify the process in which translation and transcription occur simultaneously.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
Translation and transcription occur simultaneously.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) |
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10 ribosomal binding sites (RBS is equal to ___ proteins.
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10 RBS = 10 proteins
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Identify the process that begins at the first AUG and follows a RBS (ribosomal binding site).
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes)
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Identify the process that begins at the first AUG and stops at the stop codon.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes)
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Identify the 2 add-ons put on proteins in eukaryotes (monocistronic) and their function.
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G-cap
Poly-A tail Add-ons tell cell machinery that the protein is finished being made. |
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Identify the process in which transcription and translation are two totally different processes.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes)
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In eukaryotes (monocistronic), where does transcription occur? Where does translation occur?
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Transcription = nucleus
Translation = cytoplasm (after transcript of mature mRNA leaves nucleus) |
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Identify the process in which exons and introns are utilized.
A. Polycistronic (prokaryotes) B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes) |
B. Monocistronic (eukaryotes)
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exon
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expressed sequence; make up the mature message
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intron
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intervening parts of mRNA that are removed; not expressed
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lac operon
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3 different enzymes that breakdown lactose in prokaryotes
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promotor (in lac operon)
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site on DNA bound by RNA polymerase
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repressor
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in absense of lactose, this binds to operator and prevents transcription
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operator
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acts as on/off switch for the breakdown of lactose; bound by repressor
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What will cause the repressor to unbound from the operator?
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Presence of lactose
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When operator switch turns on, then what happens?
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RNA polymerase is allowed to transcribed message.
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Identify the 4 types of mutations discussed in class.
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Silent
Missense Nonsense Frameshift |
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Which type of mutation is the most dangerous?
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Frameshift mutation because it changes the protein completely by inserting/deleting 1 or 2 bases
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silent mutation
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change one base for another base, but you get the SAME amino acid
result = no change |
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missense mutation
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change one base for another base, and you get DIFFERENT amino acid
result = change in activity of protein that can be beneficial or harmful |
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nonsense mutation
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change one base for another base that results in a stop codon
result = premature termination; protein most likely nonfunctional b/c of its short length |
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frameshift mutation
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caused by the insertion or a deletion of a base pair; changes protein completely
MOST DANGEROUS! |
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Which type of mutation results in the disease sickle-cell anemia?
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missense mutation
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Identify the 3 enzymes (and their functions) bacteria use to fix mutations.
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endonuclease - recognizes and cuts out mistake
DNA polymerase - synthesizes new strand that is complementary to the template DNA ligase - covalently joins the new fragment to the old one |
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Identify the 3 methods of isolating bacteria discussed in class.
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Direct selection (positive selection)
Indirection selection AMES test |
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direct selection
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used in searching for drug resistant bacteria
method = put mixed culture of bacteria medium of penicillin (or some antibiotic) & only those colonies that grow are resistant to penicillin |
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indirect selection
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method = make duplicate of the same plate, but treat them differently (i.e. different temperature)
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kyynärpää
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elbow
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In the AMES test, if the reversion rate increases afterward, what is the result?
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The substance is a carcinogen.
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Identify the 3 types of bacteria genetic transfer.
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Transformation
Transduction Conjugation |
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Which of these bacterial genetic transfer methods require the 2 bacteria to actually touch one another?
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Conjugation
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How does this type of bacteria genetic transfer occur: transformations?
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Naked DNA (floating from dead bacteria) in the environment goes into membrane & combines w/ chromosomal DNA
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How does this type of bacteria genetic transfer occur: transduction? (3)
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Virus injects DNA via phage
Viral particles are made, but 1 is made wrong Wrongly made viral particle shoots bacterial DNA into other bacteria that it infects |
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How does this type of bacteria genetic transfer occur: conjugation?
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Male cell extends pili and attaches to female
Pillus is used to transfer F plasmid (aka F-factor) |
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transposon (3)
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a small piece of DNA that moves around the genome or to other genomes (i.e. plasmid) within the same cell
its only job is to maintain itself can contain beneficial factors |
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Bacteria have ________ on their DNA.
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Bacteria have METHYLASES on their DNA.
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How does bacteria recognize foreign DNA and what does it do to them?
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If the foreign DNA does not have methylases, it is foreign the bacteria will try to destroy it via restriction enzymes.
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restriction enzymes
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in bacteria, it is used to cut up and destroy foreign DNA at sequence specific sites
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TRUE or FALSE
DNA can be combined via restriction enzymes, even if they are from different organisms. |
TRUE
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plasmid
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small, circular pieces of DNA that exist and replicate separately from the bacterial chromosome
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How many copies of plasmid DNA can a cell have?
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1-500
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Describe the process of creating a genomic library.
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1. Start w/ DNA
2. Cut w/ restriction enzymes 3. Insert fragments into plasmids 4. Insert plasmids into bacteria |
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Describe the process of creating a cDNA library.
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1. Start w/ mRNA
2. Make cDNA (copy DNA) 3. Insert fragments into plasmids 4. Insert plasmids into bacteria |
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Which of these two processes makes proteins in vast amounts?
Genomic or cDNA |
cDNA
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Which of these two processes allows one to regulate proteins and turn them on/off?
Genomic or cDNA |
Genomic
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What enzyme allows you to go from RNA to cDNA?
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Reverse transcriptase
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Where was reverse transcriptase isolated from?
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Viruses
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southern blot technique
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transferring of DNA from a gel to nitrocellulose
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northern blot technique
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transferring of RNA from a gel to nitrocellulose
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western blot technique
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transferring of proteins from a gel to nitrocellulose
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Identify the 5 steps of the colony blot technique. ***
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Cut up human DNA
Run it on gel Put it on nitrocellulose Run electricity through it See which lights up agar = electrophoresis |
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RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphisms)
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old technique where you check and compare the length of DNA; used for DNA finger printing
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Identify the 3 steps of the PCR protocol.
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Heat
Anneal Extend |
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During the PCR protocol, what occurs during the 1st step (heat)?
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94-96C to denature DNA; separates into 2 strands
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During the PCR protocol, what occurs during the 2nd step (anneal)?
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Temperature is variable; attach primer to denatured DNA via base pairing at one location
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During the PCR protocol, what occurs during the 3rd step (extend)?
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About 72C; DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase in this case) makes DNA
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PCR requires... (5)
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DNA
Primers NTPs DNA polymerase Buffer w/ Mg++ |
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Describe the 5-step process of DNA replication "in vivo" (in a living cell).
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1. Helicase unwinds DNA
2. SSBP stabilizes single-stranded DNA 3. Primase adds RNA primer 4. DNA polymerase makes DNA 5. DNA ligase covalently links all Okazaki fragments |
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Describe the 4-step process of DNA replication "in vitro" (in a living cell).
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Heat unwinds DNA and stabilizes the single stranded DNA.
DNA primer added (at lower temp) by complementary base pairing. Taq polymerase makes DNA. Only making a single fragment of DNA, so DNA ligase is not needed. |
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Why isn't helicase needed during in vitro?
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Heat unwinds/denatures DNA.
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Why isn't primase needed during in vitro?
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Primer is added by complementary base paring.
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Why isn't DNA polymerase needed during in vitro?
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They use Taq polymerase, a version from another organisms that can sustain high temperatures, to make DNA.
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Why isn't DNA ligase needed during in vitro?
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Nothing needs to be linked together
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Which of these nucleotides can you keep adding to and which of these don't allow you to?
deoxy and dideoxy |
deoxy = keep adding
(d) dideoxy (dd) = you can't add anymore |
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Which of these perform photosynthesis and which do not?
Algae Protozoa Fungi |
Algae = Yes
Protozoa = No Fungi = No |
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Identify the protozoa that causes malaria.
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Plasmodium
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Identify the protozoa that causes sleeping sickness.
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Trypanosoma
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What do fungi have in their cell walls?
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Chitin
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What are arthropods?
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insects, ticks, fleas, mites, and mosquitos that are NOT microorganisms, but are vectors for them
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What are mosquitos vectors for?
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(flagellate) plasmodium that causes malaria
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What are ticks vectors for?
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(bacteria) Rickettsia that causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever
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