Microbiology 509 Final Study Questions Part Two

Front 1

In response to the intentional introduction of pathogens, like in the use of vaccinations composed of dead pathogens, the body builds up this type of immunity.

Back 1

What is the reason why the body will build up its artificially acquired active immunity?

Front 2

The body makes this type of immunity in response to the unintentional introduction of pathogens, but the body makes the other type of immunity in response to the intentional introduction of pathogens.

Back 2

What is the difference between natural adaptive immunity and the other type of adaptive immunity, artificial immunity?

Front 3

In forming this immunity, the body unintentionally receives an immune response that had already been premade outside the body.

Back 3

What is the way that a person builds their naturally acquired passive immunity?

Front 4

An example of this type of immunity is the following: a mother will pass along her immune response, like select antibodies, to her newborn infant by breast feeding it.

Back 4

What is an example of how people build their naturally acquired passive immunity?

Front 5

In this type of immunity, the body actually synthesizes new antibodies, but in the other immunity, the body simply receives an immune response that has already been premade outside the body.

Back 5

What is the difference between actively and passively acquired adaptive immunity?

Front 6

In response to the unintentional introduction of pathogens into the body, like eating contaminated beef, the body builds up this type of immunity.

Back 6

What is the type of introduction of pathogens that causes the body to build up its naturally acquired active immunity, and what is an example of this pathogenic introduction and immune response occurring?

Front 7

The body actually participates in acquiring this immunity, but it does nothing to form the other type of immunity that has already been premade outside the body.

Back 7

What is the difference between actively acquired immunity and the other type of adaptive immunity, passively acquired immunity?

Front 8

An example of building up this type of immunity is receiving premade antibodies of immunization shots because of genetic problems or traveling.

Back 8

What is an example of how people build up their artificially acquired passive immunity?

Front 9

This type of immunity only protects the body for a short time, but its opposite, the other type of immunity, protects the body for a lifetime.

Back 9

What is the difference between the length of time that the passive immunity protects the body and the length of time that its opposite, the other type of immunity, active immunity, protects the body?

Front 10

In forming this immunity, the body intentionally receives an immune response that has already been premade outside the body through an injection.

Back 10

What is the reason why the body builds up its artificially acquired passive immunity?

Front 11

Humoral and cell mediated immune responses are sub-categories of this type of immunity,

Back 11

What are the two sub-categories of adaptive immunity?

Front 12

In general, this branch of adaptive immunity is where antibodies are produced by B-lymphocytes.

Back 12

What is it that is produced in general, by the humoral branch of adaptive immunity?

Front 13

In general, this branch of adaptive immunity is where specialized lymphocytes, certain white blood cells, are produced.

Back 13

What is it that is produced, in general, by the cell-mediated branch of the adaptive immunity?

Front 14

This branch of the adaptive immunity is most effective for killing extracellular pathogens and extracellular viruses.

Back 14

What is the humoral branch of adaptive immunity designed to kill?

Front 15

This branch of the adaptive immunity is most effective at killing pathogens on the intracellular level or cellular level like handling intracellular viruses or damaged or abnormal cells.

Back 15

What is the cell-mediated branch of adaptive immunity used to kill?

Front 16

This key cell is produced in the humoral branch of adaptive immunity.

Back 16

What is the branch of adaptive immunity that mainly produces B-lymphocytes?

Front 17

This key cell is produced in the cell-mediated sub-branch of adaptive immunity.

Back 17

What is the sub-branch of the adaptive that produces T-lymphocytes?

Front 18

A substance that stimulates an immune response.

Back 18

What is the definition of an antigen?

Front 19

It originates from outside the body, a foreign substance that does not belong to the body and is considered “non-self,” like microorganisms, toxins, pathogens, by-products of toxins transplants, venoms, or allergies—pollen/eggs.

Back 19

What is a substance’s origin that makes it known to the body that it is an antigen, and what are some examples of these antigens?

Front 20

If it fails to recognize the difference between antigens and the human body’s own cells, it will consider the human body as an antigen and attack it, like in Autoimmune diseases: rheumatoid arthritis, lupos, pernicious anemia, and Grave’s disease.

Back 20

What are the consequences, including examples of disease, of the human immune system failing to differentiate between the human body’s own cells and antigens?

Front 21

The disease where the immune system attacks the body because it thinks that the body is an antigen are Autoimmune diseases: rheumatoid arthritis, lupos, pernicious anemia, and Grave’s disease.

Back 21

What are the disease that develop from the immune system failing to recognize the human body’s own cells and instead identifying the human’s own cells as antigens?

Front 22

One percent of the time, an antigen can be this substance. The point is, it doesn’t happen often.

Back 22

What is the percent of the time that the human body’s own cells are antigens?

Front 23

These substances, the ones that stimulate an immune response, can be made up of any chemical composition.

Back 23

What is an antigen's composition?

Front 24

All of these substances stimulate responses from the immune system and are all macromolecules.

Back 24

What is the characteristic that is present in all antigens?

Front 25

Antigens made up of this chemical composition cause a more intense immune response in comparison to antigens made up of sugars, nucleic acids, or carbohydrates.

Back 25

What is the difference in the immune system’s response to antigens made up of proteins in comparison to antigens made up of other chemicals?

Front 26

The substance that elicits an immune response can either be particulate substances, participles that do not get dissolve in the blood stream like bacteria or viruses, or soluble substances, substances that get dissolve in the blood stream like albumin.

Back 26

What are the two groups of antigens that branch off from an antigen’s solubility characteristics?

Front 27

These antigens will be participated first and then removed by the body, but its opposite branch of antigens, the other antigens, will be agglutinated first and then removed by the body.

Back 27

What is the immune system’s process of removing soluble antigens from the body in comparison to its process of removing insoluble antigens from the body?

Front 28

To eliminate the presence of this type of antigen, the immune system must be firstly participated it in order to then remove it from the body.

Back 28

What is the immune system’s process of removing soluble antigens from the body?

Front 29

To eliminate the presence of this type of antigen, the immune system must first agglutinate it in order to then remove it from the body.

Back 29

What is the immune system’s process of eliminating particulate/insoluble antigens?

Front 30

These are the only part of an antigen that are on the antigen's surface and that stimulates the immune response. Like when antibodies react with them on the surface of apthgens.

Back 30

What are the antigenic determinants or epitopes?

Front 31

Antibodies only react with these parts of an antigen.

Back 31

What is the usefulness of antigenic determinants or epitopes to antibodies?

Front 32

Importantly, antibodies can only differentiate between these substances and the body’s own cells by identifying it based of its determinants or epitopes.

Back 32

What are the parts of an antigen’s surface that allow antibodies to identify it as an antigen?

Front 33

Immunologists take advantage of antigenic determinants or epitopes to make vaccinations that are only made up of parts of a whole pathogen, like an epitope of an E. Coli cell, because they know that the body’s immune system will respond to the presence of whole E. Coli cells as well as epitopes of E. coli cells.

Back 33

What is the antibody’s method that they use to identify antigens and has been taken advantage of to make subunit vaccinations by immunologists.

Front 34

Since antibodies only identify antigens based off their antigenic determinants or epitopes, the antibodies do not need to see entire antigens in order to respond to their presence (so you can make a subunit vaccination).

Back 34

What is a pro of antibodies only being able to identify antigens based off their antigenic determinants or epitopes?

Front 35

The immune system identifies an antigen by reacting with these parts of an antigen and stimulating an appropriate response based off these parts on an antigen’s surface.

Back 35

What are the immune system’s two purposes for reacting with antigenic determinants or epitopes?

Front 36

Each antibody recognizes only one epitope per antigen and as a result, varying amounts of multiple types of antibodies each bind to a specific epitope on the surface of the same pathogenic cell. Since a higher number and a wider array of antibodies are produced to recognize a specific epitope on an antigen and have all of the antibodies bind to a single antigen, it increases the adaptive immunity’s effectiveness at eliminating an antigen even if an antigen mutates or changes the epitopes on its surface.

Back 36

What is the cause and the effect of the adaptive immunity using antibodies that can only recognize one epitope?

Front 37

A virulent pathogen can mutate or change its epitopes faster than the human’s immune system can produce antibodies to combat the pathogen.

Back 37

What is a pathogen’s ability that makes them virulent?

Front 38

These molecules are too small to stimulate an immune response by themselves and must be associated with a larger molecule to stimulate an immune response.

Back 38

What is the definition of Haptens?

Front 39

Once this is formed from Hapten and its carrier molecule, it will stimulate an immune response.

Back 39

What is the effect of a Hapten-carrier conjugate?

Front 40

By itself, it does not stimulate an immune response, but once it attaches to a carrier molecule it stimulates an immune response (note, these molecules do not have to associate with a carrier molecule).

Back 40

What are the requirements for a molecule to be considered a Hapten?

Front 41

This branch of adaptive immunity can only be transferred by the passively acquired immunity, which includes both the naturally acquired passive immunity and the artificially acquired passive immunity.

Back 41

What is the type of adaptive immunity used to transfer the Humoral adaptive immunity (antibodies)?

Front 42

This branch of adaptive immunity cannot be transferred by the passively acquired immunity.

Back 42

What is the type of adaptive immunity that cannot transfer cell-mediated responses?

Front 43

Fully mature ones of these express a receptor on their surface, but immature ones of these do not have these receptors.

Back 43

What is the difference between mature and immature T-lymphocytes?

Front 44

They have a B-cell receptor to recognize their specific antigen.

Back 44

What is the use of a receptor on a B-lymphocyte?

Front 45

Each one of these cells has a unique B-cell receptor that is able to recognize only one specific antigen (ratio is 1:1).

Back 45

What is the ratio of B-lymphocyte cells to the number of antigens it can recognize?

Front 46

This type of humoral response occurs when the immune system encounters a pathogen for the first time, but in its the subsequent and following types of humoral responses occur when the body encounters that same pathogen again.

Back 46

What is the difference between when the primary humoral response takes place and when all of the following humoral responses happen?

Front 47

This response takes place when the body produces antibodies against a pathogen for the first time ever in a person’s lifetime.

Back 47

What is the requirement for primary humoral response to occur?

Front 48

If these cells do not encounter their specific antigen, they removes themselves from the human body by committing apoptosis, programmed cell death.

Back 48

What is the cause whose effect is B-lymphocytes commiting apoptosis?

Front 49

If the body's own cells recognize the "self" as an antigen, they will attack the body itself, which causes autoimmune diseases. Nonetheless, the body resolves this dilemma of autoimmune disease by causing the lymphocytes that recognize the "self" as antigen to commit apoptosis, programmed cell death, which eliminates the lymphocytes that can cause autoimmune disease.

Back 49

What is the response that the body performs in order to avoid autoimmune diseases?

Front 50

In the first step of this immune response, B-lymphocytes recognize an antigen that they have never seen before by using their B-cell receptor on their surface.

Back 50

What is primary humoral’s first step in its process of responding to the presence of an antigen?

Front 51

After recognition of an antigen that has never been seen before, the second step in this process is proliferation.

Back 51

What is the step in the primary humoral response where the B-lymphocyte begins to multiply, making copies of itself, after it has used its B-cell receptor to recognize an antigen that it has never encountered before?

Front 52

After the proliferation step in primary humoral response, the B-lymphocyte that has multiplied will now go through this step where it makes two different types of copies of itself, plasma cells and memory cells.

Back 52

What is the B-lymphocyte doing in the differentiating step of the primary humoral response?

Front 53

Formed in the differentiating step of the primary humoral response, this type of cell secretes non-membrane bound, free, antibodies into the blood stream to neutralize the pathogens.

Back 53

What is the purpose of plasma cells after they are formed in the differentiating step of primary humoral response?

Front 54

Formed in the differentiating step of the primary humoral response, this type of cell can be stimulated, at a later time, by the same invading pathogen to become an antibody that produces plasma cells that neutralize the present antigen and memory cells, which gives the human body lifetime protection against that specific pathogen.

Back 54

What is purpose of memory cells after they are formed in the differentiating step of the primary humor response?

Front 55

This type of humoral response firstly is said to produce only IgM antibodies because it firstly produces IgM antibodies and then secondly produces IgG antibodies in contrast to its subsequent type of response, which is said to only produce IgG antibodies because it firstly produces the subtype IgG, antibodies and then secondly produces IgM antibodies.

Back 55

What is the difference in the type of antibodies that are produced firstly and secondly by the primary and secondary humoral responses?

Front 56

This type of antibody neutralizes pathogens, but they only remain in the body for a short time as a result of their short half-life span.

Back 56

What is the purpose of antibodies secreted by plasma cells in the humoral response?

Front 57

This type of antibody lives in the body for a short period of time and in their lifetime their purpose is to neutralize invading pathogens, but the other type of antibody lives in the body for a longer period of time, weeks to years, and their purpose is to stay in the body and be stimulated, at a later time, by the return of pathogens that have entered the body before in order to become antibody producing plasma cells.

Back 57

What are the differences between plasma cells and memory cells in terms of their lifespan and purpose?

Front 58

This type of shot reactivates memory cells that are about to disappear from the body, which also increases the quality of present antibodies of that memory cell.

Back 58

What is the purpose of booster immunization shots?

Front 59

In this response, it quickly produces antibodies because it dos not go through a lag time between the introduction of an antigen and the B-lymphocytes recognition of that antigen and their response.

Back 59

What is the reason why the secondary humoral response is faster in responding to an invading antigen than the primary humoral response?

Front 60

In this humoral response, it produces a higher quantity of antibodies than its predecessor, which is one factor that makes it a more effective immune response than its predecessor.

Back 60

What is the difference between the secondary humoral response’s quantity of antibody production and its predecessor, the primary humoral response’s, quantity of antibody production, and what is the effect of this difference?

Front 61

In this immune response, it produces higher quality of antibodies against an antigen than its predecessor because its antibodies have a higher affinity to that antigen, allowing them to bind more tightly to that antigen.

Back 61

What is the reason why the secondary humoral response produces higher quality of antibodies than its predecessor, the primary humoral response?

Front 62

This type of immune response primarily uses this sub-type of antibodies, IgG, in contrast its predecessor, which mainly uses the sub-type of antibodies, IgM.

Back 62

What is the difference between the primary type of antibodies produced in the secondary humoral response in comparison to the primary type of antibodies produced in the primary humoral response?

Front 63

Memory cells initiate this immune response but B-lymphocyte cells activate its predecessor.

Back 63

What is the difference between the cell that is to stimulate secondary humoral response and the primary humoral response?

Front 64

In this adaptive immune response’s process, its third step has copies of its memory cells differentiating into memory cells and plasma cells unlike its predecessor’s response process, where the third step has clones of its B-lymphocyte cells differentiating into memory cells and plasma cells.

Back 64

What is the difference between the secondary humoral response and the primary humoral response’s third step?

Front 65

This type of cell has the exact same function in primary and secondary humoral responses, to neutralize present antigens.

Back 65

What is the similarity between primary and secondary humoral responses’ use of plasma cells?

Front 66

This type of immune response is said to primarily produce IgM antibodies because it firstly produces IgM antibodies and then IgG antibodies, in contrast to its subsequent immune response, which firstly produces IgG antibodies and then IgM antibodies.

Back 66

What is the reason why the primary humoral response is said to produce IgM antibodies in contrast to its subsequent response, the secondary humoral, which is said to produce IgG antibodies?

Front 67

This adaptive immune response can be further sub-categorized into T-dependent and the T-independent sub-branches.

Back 67

What are the two sub-branches that can further sub-divide the humoral responses?

Front 68

This sub-division of humoral response is produced in response to the repeating units of antigens like polysaccrides, multiple repeating sequences of sugars.

Back 68

What are the types of antigens that make the body respond to them with the T-independent humoral response?

Front 69

This sub-branch of humoral response is most effective against bacterial capsules, flagella, and bacterial polyysaccarides.

Back 69

What are the specific antigens that are most susceptible to the T-independent humoral response?

Front 70

This sub-branch of humoral response is not used against antigens that are made up of proteins.

Back 70

What is the T-independent humoral response not made to kill?

Front 71

This sub-division of humoral response occurs more often than its opposite, the other sub-branch of humoral responses.

Back 71

What is the difference between the number of times this sub-division of humoral response, T-dependent, occurs in comparison to its opposite, the other sub-branch of humoral response, T-independent?

Front 72

This sub-division of humoral response is used to fight antigens that are made up of proteins.

Back 72

What is the T-dependent humoral response made to fight?

Front 73

This sub-division of humoral response requires the involvement of the T-lymphocytes in contrast to its opposite, the other type of humoral response sub-division, that does not have any involvement of T-lymphocytes.

Back 73

What is the difference in the involvement of T-lymphocytes in the T-dependent humoral response in comparison to the T-independent humoral response?

Front 74

In this sub-branch of humoral response, B-lymphocytes need this chemical secreted by T-lymphocytes in order to differentiate into memory and plasma cells.

Back 74

What is the reason why the T-dependent humoral response needs to use cytokines?

Front 75

This type of chemical messanger allows B-lymphocytes to differentiate into memory plasma cells in this sub-branch of humoral response.

Back 75

What is the purpose of cytokines in the T-dependent humoral response?

Front 76

Cytokines for this type of lmyphocyte comes from Helper T-lymphocytes in this sub-division of humoral response.

Back 76

What is the type of lymphocytes that give cytokines to B-lymphocytes in T-dependent humoral response?

Front 77

Both of these two sub-divisions of humoral responses have exactly the same beginning steps, step one and step two, in their process of responding to the presence of a pathogen, but their third step in the process of their response is different.

Back 77

What are the similar and different steps in the process of T-dependent and T-independent humoral response?

Front 78

These are also called immunoglobulins.

Back 78

What is the other name for antibodies?

Front 79

They are polypeptide proteins that are connected by disulphide bonds and that are made in response to antigens because they bind to that antigen in order to neutralize the antigen’s threat by completing the five Ag-Ab actions: neutralization, agglutination/participation, opsonization, activation of the compliment system, immobilization/adherence.

Back 79

What is the composition and purpose of antibodies?

Front 80

They are very specific to the type of antigen that they were made to neutralize. In other words, one type of them is made to only neutralize on type of antigen because it can only recognize one type of epitope on that antigen. Say for example, the made up epitope,“XYZ,” on the antigen, E. Coli.

Back 80

What is the nature of an antibody’s specificity to the antigen it was produced to combat?

Front 81

A single one of these proteins is called a monomer, which is bivalent or in layman’s terms, “Y” shaped.

Back 81

What is a single antibody called and what is the shape of a single antibody?

Front 82

One monomer can bind to two antigens.

Back 82

What is the ratio of monomers to the number of binding sites they have to bind to antigens?

Front 83

IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE.

Back 83

What are the five types/classes of antibodies?

Front 84

These three types of antibodies each have two binding sites that can be used to bind to two antigens even at the same time.

Back 84

What is the number of binding sites on IgG, IgD, and IgE antibodies?

Front 85

This type of antibody is made up of five monomers and can bind to ten antigens.

Back 85

What is the number of monomers that make up IgM antibodies?

Front 86

This type of antibody is made up of two monomers, which allows it to bind to four antigens.

Back 86

What is the number of monomers that make up the IgA antibody?

Front 87

A typical antibody monomer is made up of four polypeptide protein chains: two heavy chains and two light chains. These chains are connected together by disulfide links and each chain is made up of a variable and constant region.

Back 87

What is the basic structure of a typical antibody monomer?

Front 88

One of these antibody monomer chains have a higher molecular weight than its counter part, hence their monomer names.

Back 88

What is the difference between the antibody monomer’s heavy and light chains?

Front 89

This part of an antibody is made up of variable and constant regions.

Back 89

What are the types of regions that make up an antibody’s arms?

Front 90

This part of an antibody is only made up of a constant region.

Back 90

What is the type of region that makes up the antibody’s stem or Fc region?

Front 91

Each chain that makes up an antibody is made up of this type of protein.

Back 91

What are the parts of an antibody that are made up of polypeptide proteins?

Front 92

An antibody binds to an antigen using this part of its structure.

Back 92

What is the function of an antibody’s variable region?

Front 93

This region of an antibody serves as a basis for classifying the antibody, it is used to attach to a host or complement cell, and finally, it helps activate the complement system’s classical pathway by binding to complement proteins.

Back 93

What are the three functions of an antibody’s Fc region?

Front 94

CH (constant region, heavy chain), CL (constant region, light chain), VL (variable region, light chain), and VH (variable region, heavy chain).

Back 94

What are the abbreviated used to denote the different regions of an antibody?

Front 95

An antibody’s variable region is variable among different antibodies because each antibody is produced to recognize a specific epitope on an antigen that is distinctively different from all the other epitopes that are found on that individual antigen and from the epitopes that are found on all the other antigens.

Back 95

What is the reason why an antibody’s variable region is variable?

Front 96

It is used to classify antibodies because it is similar among the same type of antibodies but different to other types of antibodies. In other words, it is only constant for a specific class of antibodies like IgG or IgM.

Back 96

What is the reason why the Fc region is used to classify antibodies?

Front 97

When antibodies attach to the body’s own cells with this region, they do not recognize the cells antigens and attack the cells, instead, the form membrane bound antibodies.

Back 97

What are the antibodies accomplishing when they attach to the body’s own cells with their Fc region?

Front 98

To activate this particular pathway in the compliment system, it requires the Fc region.

Back 98

What is the part on an antibody that helps activate the classical pathway?

Front 99

Some antibodies use this region on themselves because they prefer to bind to host cells instead of freely floating around the body.

Back 99

What is the reason why some antibodies use their Fc region to attach to host cells?

Front 100

This antibody’s functions are to enhance phagocytosis, neutralize toxins and viruses, and protect the fetus and newborns.

Back 100

What are the functions of IgG?

Front 101

This antibody is especially effective against microorganisms and agglutinating antigens, and it is the first antibody produced in response to the first time an antigen infects the human body.

Back 101

What is IgM effective against, and what is its purpose?

Front 102

This antibody provides localized protection on mucosal surfaces.

Back 102

What is the purpose of IgA?

Front 103

This antibody does not have a serum function, but its presence on B-cells functions to initiate an immune response by being used to recognize antigens.

Back 103

What is the function of IgD?

Front 104

This antibody is an agent in allergic reactions and possibly lysis of parasitic worms.

Back 104

What is the purpose of IgE?

Front 105

This antibody makes up about 80% of the total antibodies in serum. Importantly, this is the majority antibody in human’s serum.

Back 105

What is the percentage and the importance of IgG antibodies in human serum?

Front 106

This antibody is the predominant antibody in the secondary humoral response.

Back 106

What is the humoral response that is predominantly made up of IgG antibodies?

Front 107

This antibody is the first and the most predominant antibody in the primary humoral response.

Back 107

What is the humoral response where its first and most predominant antibody is IgM?

Front 108

These antibodies valency is two.

Back 108

What is the valency of IgG, IgD, and IgE?

Front 109

This antibody’s valency is ten.

Back 109

What is the valency of IgM?

Front 110

This antibody is somewhat found in the body’s serum, but it is mostly found on lymphocytes as B-cell surfaces?

Back 110

What is the location in the body where the majority of IgM antibodies are found?

Front 111

This antibody is especially important in the protection of the upper respiratory tract.

Back 111

What is IgA especially important at doing?

Front 112

This antibody’s valency is four.

Back 112

What is the valency of IgA?

Front 113

This antibody is primarily found in secretions: mucus, tears, saliva, milk (especially breast milk just after a mother gave birth), blood and lymph.

Back 113

What are the locations where IgA is primarily found?

Front 114

This antibody only has a minor presence in serum, but it is primarily found on B-cells because it is the presumed antigen receptor on B-lymphocyte surfaces.

Back 114

What are the locations in the body where IgD antibodies are found?

Front 115

This antibody is not primarily found in serum because it is not a generally circulating antibody, but it is most often found on mast cells because its Fc region binds tightly to these cells.

Back 115

What is the location in the body where IgE antibodies are found?

Front 116

This antibody does not have a known function in serum.

Back 116

What is the antibody, IgD’s, function in serum?

Front 117

This type of antibody is most predominantly made up of IgG antibodies.

Back 117

What is the most predominant form of circulating antibodies?

Front 118

These two antibodies, type one and type two, are the only antibodies that allow humans to naturally acquire passive immunity because type one is the only antibody that passes through human placenta, and because type two antibody is the main antibody transferred in mother’s milk.

Back 118

What is the type of adaptive immunity that can only be transferred by IgG, type one, and IgA antibodies, type two?

Front 119

These two antibodies serve as B-cell receptors when they becomed anchored to a B-lymphocyte.

Back 119

What is IgM and IgD's purpose after it binds to B-lymphocytes?

Front 120

When it is secreted, it forms a pentameter with a valency of ten, but when anchored to a cell, mostly B-lymphocytes, it appears as a single monomer acting as the B-cell’s receptor.

Back 120

What is the difference between free IgM antibodies and anchored IgM antibodies?

Front 121

This antibody mainly protects humans, especially newborns, against upper respiratory tract infections and gastrointestinal tract infections because it is found on mucousal membrane tracks.

Back 121

What is the main purpose of IgA in humans and newborns?

Front 122

This is the only type of antibody that can survive in the GI track.

Back 122

What is the track in the body that is only protected by IgA antibodies?

Front 123

A mature B-lymphocyte cell has both of these antibodies as BCR receptors on its surface.

Back 123

What are the type of receptors that are made up of IgM and IgD antibodies, and what are the types of cells that have these receptors?

Front 124

These cells are mostly found in tissues like the nasal cavity.

Back 124

What is an example of where mast cells are found?

Front 125

Antibodies serve this function when they bind to pathogens like viruses or bacteria in order to stop these antigens from attacking or adhering to human cells or when they bind to toxins’ active sites in order to stop toxins’ actions.

Back 125

What is the purpose of antibodies carrying out neutralization, a protective outcome of an antibody-antigen binding?

Front 126

Antibodies do not have the capability to carry out and complete this function against antigens.

Back 126

What is the defensive protein that serves five major functions in the immune system, but it still cannot directly lyse or kill an antigen?

Front 127

Antibodies carry out this function by binding to bacterial flagella in order to prevent microbes from moving around and reacting to their desired attachment site, which in turn neutralizes a pathogen.

Back 127

What is the action that antibodies perform when they carry out immobilization and adherence, specifically what do they bind to on a pathogen, what is immobilization and adherence's significance, what is so "significant" about immobilization and adherence, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 128

By antibodies carrying out this function, they importantly lower bacterias’ pathogencity and virulency because they lower the pathogenic bacteria's ability to move around the body.

Back 128

What is the importance of antibodies carrying out their function of immobilization and adherence?

Front 129

These defensive proteins, by themselves, do not have the ability to lyse a target.

Back 129

What is the action that cannot be carried out by antibodies alone?

Front 130

Antibodies perform these two functions in order to enhance the process of phagocytosis by gathering soluble or particulate antigens in order to allow phagocytes to phagocytose this cluster of antibodies and antigens in one round.

Back 130

What is the purpose of antibodies carrying out participation and agglutination, two protective outcomes of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 131

Antibodies perform this function when they bind to soluble antigens and aggregate them together in order to form a participate, a giant cluster of antibodies and antigens that is not longer part of the solution when it is formed, and allow phagocytes to phagocytosis that participate.

Back 131

What is the procedure of participation, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 132

Antibodies perform this function in order to cross-link and bind together many insoluble antigens so that hundreds of bacteria can be phagocytosed in one round.

Back 132

What is the procedure of agglutination, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 133

Antibodies perform this function in order to coat an antigen, which flags that antigen for phagocytosis and enhances the phagocytosis process by allowing phagocytes to more easily bind to that antigen.

Back 133

What is the purpose of opsonization, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 134

Antibodies carry out this function in order to activate the complement proteins of the classical pathway and lyse target antigens.

Back 134

What is the compliment pathway that is used to activate the compliment system and what is the desired outcome of the activation of the compliment system, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 135

Importantly, antibodies do not actually lyse a target in performing this function. Rather, they activate compliment proteins, like C5b and C6-C9, the mechanisms whose purpose is to carry out the lysis of a target.

Back 135

What is the type of defensive protein that lyses targets in complement activation, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 136

This part of an antibody is responsible for activating the classical pathway of complement proteins.

Back 136

What is the purpose of an antibody’s Fc region in regards to an antibody carrying out complement activation, a protective outcome of antibody-antigen binding?

Front 137

Antibodies with a larger amount of these two regions are better than antibodies with a smaller amount of these two regions because the superior antibodies have are better able at performing their functions as a result of their increased number of these two regions.

Back 137

What is the difference between antibodies that have a high number of variable and Fc regions and antibodies that have a low number of variable and Fc regions?

Front 138

This is the most efficient antibody in agglutination, precipitation, neutralization, and complement activation because it has the highest valency.

Back 138

What are the functions that are most efficiently performed by IgM antibodies?

Front 139

This type of vaccination is made up of living pathogens that have completely lost their virulency, the ability to cause infection, because its pathogen’s were modified by immunologists in order to keep the pathogens alive but without their genes that cause infection (Its pathogens are alive but not infectious).

Back 139

What are the two characteristics of the pathogens that make up attenuated viruses?

Front 140

This vaccination is safe because it is made up of living pathogens that are not virulent as a result of being modified by immunologists.

Back 140

What is the reason why attenuated vaccinations are safe for human subjects?

Front 141

This type of vaccination is better than the killed/inactivated vaccination because it causes the body to build up a stronger immunity to its pathogens, in comparison to the killed/inactivated vaccine’s pathogens, as a result of its pathogens being able to multiply, which increases the total number of present pathogens in the body and the total time the pathogens actually remain in the body.

Back 141

What are the two reasons why the attenuated vaccination is better than the killed/inactivated vaccination?

Front 142

When injected, this type of vaccination’s pathogens mimics an actual infection because its pathogens will move around the body, attach to host cells, and colonize or multiply, but its pathogens do not cause infection as a result of being modified by immunologists.

Back 142

What are the three reasons why the pathogens that make up attenuated vaccines will mimic an infection when they are injected into a human subject and the one reason why the pathogens are safe to use in attenuated vaccinations?

Front 143

In the past, This type of vaccination’s con is its pathogens, which although they are alive, they have lost their virulency do to being modified, can undergo spontaneous genetic modification, become virulent again, and turn into a real threat to human subjects.

Back 143

What is the one major downside to attenuated vaccinations of the past?

Front 144

Although this vaccination is composed of live pathogens, it does not pose a threat to humans when injected because immunologists in order to have already modified its pathogens completely remove its pathogens’ virulency, the ability to cause infections.

Back 144

What is the virulency of the pathogens that make up attenuated vaccinations even though the pathogens are still alive?

Front 145

This type of vaccination is composed of completely whole but dead pathogens.

Back 145

What are the two characteristics of the pathogens that make up killed/inactivated vaccinations?

Front 146

When the body is injected with this type of vaccination, its immune system responds to the vaccine’s whole yet dead pathogens by seeing the pathogens, recognizing or identifying them, involving its B-lymphocytes, activating the B-lymphocyte that is specifically designed to fight the vaccination’s pathogens, and proceeding through the primary humoral response where the appropriate B-cell proliferates and then differentiates into memory cells and plasma cells.

Back 146

What is the human subject’s immune system’s response after the subject is injected by the killed/inactivated vaccination?

Front 147

This type of vaccination’s cons are that it does not induce the cell-mediated immunity, it must be used again to maintain the adaptive immunity’s memory cell count against its pathogens, and its artificially created pathogens may not always match up against the real world version of the targeted pathogen.

Back 147

What are the cons of killed/inactivated vaccinations?

Front 148

Since this type of vaccination is made up of living pathogens, it is quite strong and is primarily used only to vaccinated healthy and young subjects in contrast to its opposite, the other type of vaccination, which is composed of completely whole yet dead pathogens and is safe to use for subjects with weakened immune systems and in any age group like in young children subjects or the very old subjects.

Back 148

What is the reason why the attenuated vaccination is useful for its intended subjects in contrast to the reason why the killed/inactivated vaccination is used for its intended subjects and what are the different characteristics among the subjects who receive the attenuated vaccination and the killed/inactivated vaccination?

Front 149

Examples of this type of vaccination include the flu shot and the Hepatitis A shot.

Back 149

What are the examples of the killed/inactivated vaccination?

Front 150

Examples of this type of vaccination include measles, mumps, and the Flu mist.

Back 150

What are the examples of the attenuated vaccination?

Front 151

This type of vaccination produces a more robust immune response than the killed/inactive vaccination.

Back 151

What is the type of vaccination that produces a weaker immune response than the attenuated vaccination?

Front 152

This type of vaccination activates the entire adaptive immune systems, the humoral and cell-mediated branches.

Back 152

What are the branches of immunity that are active by the attenuated vaccination?

Front 153

Out of all the types of vaccinations, this is the only type of vaccination that could have caused infection instead of protection in the past.

Back 153

What was the attenuated vaccination capable of doing in the past that only it could perform out of all the other vaccinations?

Front 154

In the past, this vaccination could have caused disease instead of protection, but today, it can no longer cause infection like all the other vaccinations.

Back 154

What is the capability that attenuated vaccinations could have performed in the past but cannot perform today because the latest advances in molecular genetics have removed this capability?

Front 155

This vaccination is composed of the inactivated form of toxins instead of being composed of pathogens.

Back 155

What are the substances that make up toxoid vaccinations?

Front 156

A classic example of this type of vaccination is a tetanus shot because this shot is made up of a modified version of the toxin from clostridium bacterium and not the bacterium itself.

Back 156

What is a classic example of toxoid vaccinations?

Front 157

This type of vaccination is only made up of a specific protein epitope from a pathogen rather than whole pathogens.

Back 157

What is the substance that composes subunit vaccines?

Front 158

An example of this type of vaccination is Hepatitis B.

Back 158

What is an example of the subunit vaccination?

Front 159

A limitation of this vaccination is that it does not provide a strong and robust immune response because it is composed of only one type of epitope of one pathogen.

Back 159

What is the drawback to subunit vaccinations and what is the reason why this drawback exists?

Front 160

This sub-branch of the adaptive immunity offers protection against intracellular antigens or at the cellular level

Back 160

What is the purpose of the cell-mediated immunity?

Front 161

This sub-division of adaptive immunity cannot be transferred through the placenta.

Back 161

What is the place in the human body that does not allow the cell-mediated immunity to transfer through it?

Front 162

The key players in this sub-category of the adaptive immunity are T-lymphocytes and cytokines.

Back 162

What are the key players of the cell-mediated immunity?

Front 163

This type of cytokines, abbreviated IL, is specifically produced by leukocytes or white blood cells, and plays a significant role in this sub-category of the adaptive immunity.

Back 163

What are the types of cells that produce Interleukins like IL-1 and IL-2, which serve a significant role in the cell-mediated immunity?

Front 164

T-lymphocytes are this type of cell.

Back 164

What is the type of white blood cell that starts with the capital T?

Front 165

These white blood cells get their name from the place where they mature, the Thymus.

Back 165

What is the reason why a certain type of white blood cell acquired the name, T-lymphocytes?

Front 166

This type of white blood cell has one co-receptors, either CD4 or CD8, but never both.

Back 166

What are the co-receptors that mature T-lymphocytes can have?

Front 167

This type of white blood cell’s surface receptor is TCR.

Back 167

What is the surface receptor of T-lymphocytes?

Front 168

This type of cell is formed by a TCR and CD8.

Back 168

What are the two required receptors that mature cytotoxic (Tc cells) must have?

Front 169

This type of virus targets cells with CD4 co-receptors, which are T-lymphocytes, the cells that make up the adaptive immunity.

Back 169

What is the type of cell in the immune system that is targeted by HIV?

Front 170

This type of cell is formed by a TCR and CD4.

Back 170

What are the two required receptors that mature helper T cells (TH cells) must have?

Front 171

This type of surface receptor is not an antibody, but it is just another type of protein.

Back 171

What is the composition of TCR, and what is it not?

Front 172

This type of surface receptor alone is not enough for its host cell to recognize an antigen.

Back 172

What is the ability that TCRs on T-lymphocytes cannot perform alone?

Front 173

This type of mature cells will either have TCR and CD4 or TCR and CD8, but they will never express both co-receptors at the same time.

Back 173

What are the receptors in that a mature T-lymphocyte can express?

Front 174

When this type of virus attacks T-lymphocytes, it attacks the adaptive immunity and in turn, this virus lowers a subjects acquired adaptive immunity.

Back 174

What is the type of immunity destroyed by HIV?

Front 175

This type of white blood cell does not recognize free-floating antigens.

Back 175

What is the type of antigen that cannot be recognized by T-lymphocytes?

Front 176

This type of white blood cells uses both its surface receptor and its co-receptor to recognize its intended antigen that is presented on a cell.

Back 176

What is the substance that can only be recognized by T-lymphocytes using both their TCR and CD4/CD8 receptors?

Front 177

A cell must present an antigen along with an MHC molecule in the form of an Ag-MHC class one or class two complex before this type of cell can recognize the antigen.

Back 177

What is a cell required to present to T-lymphocytes before its antigen and its surface can be recognized by the T-lymphocytes?

Front 178

Class one and Class two are two sub-categories of this type of complexes.

Back 178

What are the two sub-categories of MHC complexes?

Front 179

This sub-category of MHC complexes is found on the surfaces of most of the body’s nucleated cells.

Back 179

What are the types of cells that express MHC class one complexes on their surfaces?

Front 180

This sub-category of MHC complexes is found on the surfaces of APCs, such as Dentritic cells, B-cells, and Macrophages.

Back 180

What are the types of cells and the specific cells themselves that express class two MHC complexes on their surfaces?

Front 181

Its unabbreviated name is Major Histo compatibility complexes?

Back 181

What is the unabbreviated name of MHC complexes?

Front 182

Since this type of cell from the cell-mediated immunity does not have specific receptors on its surface, it does not use receptors to recognize antigens on its target cells' surfaces.

Back 182

What is the mechanism that natural killer (NK) cells do not use to recognize abnormal cells?

Front 183

This type of cell recognizes cells that do not express enough MHC class one complexes as targets cells that are subject for eliminating.

Back 183

What are the types of cells that natural killer cells recognize as abnormal or virus-infected cells?

Front 184

Importantly, since this type of cell from the cell-mediated immunity does not use receptors to identify its target cells, its recognition of its target cells is not dependent on the presence of unique antigens on its target cells' surfaces. This fact is important because some viruses infect human cells and inhibit human cells from making MHC class one complexes. Without MHC class one complexes human cells cannot display antigens like viral proteins. Without the display of antigens, in the form of Ag-MHC class one complexes, TCR+CD8 T-cells cannot recognize cells as virus-infected or abnormal cells.

Back 184

What is the importance of natural killer (NK) cells not using receptors to target abnormal or virus-infected cells?

Front 185

Since this type of cell from the cell-mediated immunity importantly does not depend on the presence of antigens in order to identify its target cells, it can target cells that do not display antigens as a result of being inhibited at displaying MHC complexes by a virus that is infecting these cells. This is important because Cytotoxic T-cells can only identify a cell as a virus-infected cells by recognizing antigens displayed in an Ag-MHC complex.

Back 185

What are the unique types of cells that are targeted by natural killer (NK) cells, what is the importance of this characteristic of natural killer cells, and what is so significant about "importance"?

Front 186

This type of cell uses its CD4 receptor to recognize the presence of this type of complex on another cell.

Back 186

What is the type of co-receptor that is used by the T-lymphocytes that recognize MHC class two complexes on other cells?

Front 187

This type of cell uses its CD8 receptor to recognize the presence of this type of complex on another cell.

Back 187

What is the type of co-receptor that is used by the T-lymphocytes that recognize MHC class one complexes on other cells?

Front 188

This type of cell must recognize the presence of both an antigen and the presence of an MHC class one complex, in the form of an Ag-MHC class one complex, on another cell's surface before it can carry out its function of lysing that cell.

Back 188

What are the two items that form the one complex that Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes must recognize on another cell's surface before it can carry out its job of accomplishing this function?

Front 189

This type of cell must recognize the presence of an antigen in addition to the presence of an MHC class two complex, in the form of an Ag-MHC class two complex, on another cells surface before it can carry out its function of helping APC cells phagocytose bacteria by releasing cytokines that react with APCs and subsequently increase the APCs' efficiency at performing phagocytosis.

Back 189

What are the two items that Helper T-cells must recognize on another cell's surface before it can carry out its function of doing this?

Front 190

This type of cell uses its main receptor to check for the presences of antigens on the surface of that other cell and its co-receptor to check for the presence of MHC class two complexes on the same surface of that other cell.

Back 190

What are each of a TCR+CD4 T-cell's receptors used to recognize?

Front 191

This type of cell uses its main receptor to check for the presence of antigens on the surface of that other cell, as an example, and its co-receptor to check for the presence of MHC class one complexes on the surface of that other cell.

Back 191

What are each of the TCR+CD8 T-cell receptors used to recognize?

Front 192

After this type of cell identifies the presence of an Ag-MHC class one complex on the surface of another cell, it proliferates.

Back 192

What is the step that occurs after a Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte identifies the presence of an Ag-MHC class one complex on the surface of another cell.

Front 193

After this type of cell identifies the presence of an Ag-MHC class two complex on the surface of an APC, it proliferates.

Back 193

What is the step that occurs after a Helper T-cell identifies the presence of an Ag-MHC class two complex on the surface of another cell.

Front 194

After proliferation, this type of cell differentiates into memory cells and effector cells that are also known as CTL cells.

Back 194

What is the step that occurs after Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes proliferate?

Front 195

After this type of cell proliferates, it differentiates into memory cells and effector cells that are also known as TH-cells.

Back 195

What is the step that occurs after Helper T-cells proliferate (TCR+CD4 T-cells)?

Front 196

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another type of cell. Once created, it destroys cells such as virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and incompatible tissue grafts.

Back 196

What is the function of effector Cytotoxic T-cells?

Front 197

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another cell. It carries out its function by completing the following three steps: first, it spots its target cell, second, it releases the protein, perforin, from its granules, and third, its protein is inserted into the membrane of the infected or abnormal cell, which forms pores in the membrane that causes the target cells' lysis.

Back 197

What are the three steps that effector Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL ) cells must complete, in order to carry out it their procedure for lysing target cells?

Front 198

MHC class two cells use their MHC class two complex in order to present antigens in the form of an Ag-MHC class two complex, to this type of cells.

Back 198

What is the complex that APCs use to present antigens to TCR+CD4 T-lymphocytes?

Front 199

MHC class one use their MHC class one complex in order to present antigens in the form of an Ag-MHC class one complex to this type of cell.

Back 199

What is the complex that MHC class one cells use to present antigens to TCR+CD8 T-lymphocytes?

Front 200

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another type of cell. After its creation, it becomes an effector type of this cell, which allows it to produce multiple types of cytokines that increase the phagocytic performance of macrophages, other T-cells, and B-cells.

Back 200

What is the function of effector Helpter T-cells (TH cells)?

Front 201

Macrophages, other T-cells, and B-cells are the three types of cells that benefit from the activation of this type of cell.

Back 201

What are the three types of cells that benefit from the activation of effector Helper T-cells (TH cells)?

Front 202

Macrophages, Denratic cells, and B-cells are the only three cells that make up this group of cells. The group of cells that express MHC class two complexes.

Back 202

What are the only three types of cells that make up the professional antigen presenting group of cells (APCs), the only group of cells that express this type of MHC complex?

Front 203

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another type of cell. It carries out its function by completing the following steps: after its creation, it gains the ability to produce cytokines, it firstly uses this newly acquired ability to produce multiple types of cytokines, secondly its cytokines travel to macrophages, other T-cells, and B-cells, where the cytokines activate these types of cells, which increases their performance by at least a hundred fold.

Back 203

What are the two steps that effector Helper T-cells must complete in order to accomplish their function of helping this type of cell, and what is the final result of effector Helper T-cells accomplishing their function?

Front 204

This type of cell can only recognize antigens that are complexed with MHC, like Ag-MHC class one complexes or Ag-MHC class two complexes.

Back 204

What are the only types of complexes that allow T-cells to recognize present antigens on the surfaces of other cells?

Front 205

It is a complex of proteins that comes from the body's own cells and that is unique to every person. For example, the class one and the class two types of this complex exist inside every human body, but they are different from person to person, which helps explain why sometimes transplant patients reject their donors' organs.

Back 205

What is the definition of MHC complexes and their two characteristics?

Front 206

This type of complex's purpose is to allow the body's immune system to recognize the difference between "self" cells and "non-self" cells.

Back 206

What is the purpose of MHC complexes?

Front 207

Foreign transplants, tumor cells, and virus-infected cells are the three types of cells that make up this group of cells.

Back 207

What are the three types abnormal or virus-infected cells?

Front 208

This group of cells displays their antigens by using their MHC class one complexes.

Back 208

What is the method of displaying antigens by abnormal or virus-infected cells?

Front 209

A virus-infected cell signals this type of cell to kill it by taking the viral proteins that are being synthesized inside of it and displaying them in the form of this complex, on its surface.

Back 209

What is this type of cell's step that it takes in order to present its antigens, viral proteins, in an Ag-MHC class one complex, on its surface, so that it can alert TCR-CD8 T-lymphocytes to kill it?

Front 210

A tumor cell displays its antigens on its surface by synthesizing this type of molecule, which is not present in normal cells.

Back 210

What is the type of cell that displays its antigens on its surface of its cellular membrane by synthesizing tumor specific molecules?

Front 211

A foreign cell like a transplant graft displays its antigens on its surface by displaying its MHC class one complexes on its surface, which are considered to be "non-self," and thus antigens, to the host's immune system.

Back 211

What is the type of cell that displays its foreign MHC class one complexes as antigens on the surface of its cellular membrane and to the host's immune system?

Front 212

These cells present antigens on their surfaces by taking pieces of antigens that come from digested bacteria to their surfaces and combining the pieces with their MHC class two complexes in order to form an Ag-MHC class two complex.

Back 212

What is the method that is used by all the APC cells in order to present their antigens on their surfaces?

Front 213

This type of immune response is produced by cell-mediated immunity in addition to the antibodies of the humoral immunity.

Back 213

What are the two sub-branches of adaptive immunities that produce memory cells?

Front 214

This type of cell stops the spread of a virus infection by lysing the target cells before they have fully matured virus progeny inside of them, which explains why fully matured viruses do not simply escape the targeted cells that are lysed by this type of cell?

Back 214

What is the reason why fully mature viruses do not simply escape the target cells that are lysed by effector Cytotoxic T-cells?

Front 215

Each individual cell form this group of cells can only recognize one antigen out of all the antigens that get presented on APC cells' surfaces because each specific cell only has one main receptor that can only recognize on unique antigen.

Back 215

What is the reason why one TCR+CD4 T-cell can only recognize one, unique, antigen on APC cells' surfaces?

Front 216

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another type of cell. After its creation, its purpose is to serve in Cytotoxic T-cells secondary, tertiary,...etc, cell-mediated immune response.

Back 216

What is the purpose of memory cells that are produced from TCR+CD8 T-cells (CTL cells)?

Front 217

This type of cell is created from its parent cell differentiating into it and another type of cell. After its creation, its purpose is to serve in the Helper T-cells secondary, tertiary,...etc, cell-mediated immune response.

Back 217

What is the purpose of the memory cells that are produced from Helper T-cells differentiating into them and effector Helper T-cells (TH cells)?

Front 218

This is the type of macrophages that have received cytokines from Helper T-cells.

Back 218

What are activated macrophages?

Front 219

the purpose of this type of T-cell is to kill its target but the purpose of its opposite, the other type of T-cell, is to help its target.

Back 219

What is the difference between how effector Cytotoxic T-cells and how Helper T-cells affect their target cells?

Front 220

This type of white blood cell is used in the cell-mediated immunity, but it is neither a T-cell nor is it a B-cell because it neither expresses the T-cell receptor nor the B-cell receptor.

Back 220

What are natural killer (NK) cells?

Front 221

This type of cell, which is very similar but not quite the same as Cytotoxic T-cells, injects perforin into its target cells, which lyses its target cells' cellular membrane.

Back 221

What is the function of natural killer (NK) cells after it identifies a virus-infected cell, specifically its action and significance?

Front 222

This is the only type of cell that is part of the cell-mediated immunity that does not produce a memory response.

Back 222

What is the type of response that cannot be performed by natural killer (NK) cells?

Front 223

This type of cell, which is very similar to but not quite the same as effector Cytotoxic T-cells (CTL cells), destroys virus-containing cells and tumor cells.

Back 223

What are the two types of cells that are targeted by natural killer (NK) cells?

Front 224

Both of these two types of cell-mediated response cells share the same targets, virus-containing and tumor cells, the same function, to lyse these virus-infected or abnormal cells, and the same substance and procedure to for completing their function, they produce perforin and then they inject their perforin into the cellular membranes of targeted cells in order to lyse the targeted cells' membranes.

Back 224

What are the three similarities between effector Cytotoxic T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells?

Front 225

Unlike this type of cell's close cousin, effector Cytotoxic T-cells, this type of cell does not use receptors to identify its target cells, this type of cell is not dependent upon the presence of specific antigens to recognize its target cell, and this type of cell recognizes its target cells based on whether or not its target cells have enough MHC class one present on their surfaces.

Back 225

What are the differences between natural killer (NK) cells and their close cousin, effector CTL cells?