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165 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the importance of Microbiology? |
- First Bacteria - Photosynthesis/decomposition - Human use of microorganisms - Infectious diseases |
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When did Bacteria appear? |
Approximatley 3.5 billion years ago. |
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Certain Microbes account for ___ of the earths oxygen, due to __. |
50% Photosynthesis
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Have bacteria changed the course of human history? |
YES!
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Microbiology is... |
The study of organisms that can only be seen well with a microscope. |
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What are the 6 studies of Microbiology? |
1. Bacteria = Bacteriology 2. Fungi = Mycology 3. Protozoans = Protozoology 4. Algae = Phycology 5. Viruses = Virology 6. Helminth = Parasitology |
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Procaryotic Microorganisms... |
- No nucleus - No membrane - Not bound - No organelles - 10X bigger than viruses |
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Eucaryotic Microorganisms... |
- Nucleus - Membrane - Bound sac - Organelles - 10X bigger than Procaryotic |
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Viruses are not Procaryotic or Eucaryotic, they are considered ___. |
Particles |
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Bubonic Plague |
(Yersinia pestis) - 25 million people dead, 1/3 of Europe. - Rampant Fever - The rats carried fleas, which carried the bacteria that caused this. |
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Potato Blight |
(Phytophthora infestans) - Fungus - Responsible for the great irish famine of the 1850's estimated 1,240,00 died, and 1,200,000 emigrated. |
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Small Pox |
- Hernado Cortez landed in Mexico in 1519, and Pop. was 25-30 million. - 50 years later pop. was only 3 million! - Peru, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas with a small group of soldiers. |
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What are the 6 types of microorganisms? |
1. Bacterium 2. Fungus 3. Algae 4. Virus 5. Protozoan 6. Helminth |
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Bacteria and Archaea... |
- Unicellular and lack nuclei - Smaller than Eukaryotes - Found in sufficient moisture - Asexual reproduction
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Bacteria cells walls contain... |
Peptidoglycan
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Archaea cell walls are composed of... |
Polymers and other peptidoglycan. |
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Fungi |
- Eukaryotic - Obtain food from other organisms - Has cell walls - Includes molds & yeast
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Molds... |
- Multicellular - Grow as long filaments - Reproduce by sexual/asexual spores |
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Yeasts... |
- Unicellular - Reproduce by budding/sexual spores |
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Protozoa... |
- Single-celled eukaryote - Similar to animals in nutrient needs & cell structure. - Live freely in water & in animal hosts - Asexual (mostly) & sexual reproduction - Locomotion by pseudopodia, cilia, and flagella. |
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Algae... |
- Unicellular or multicellular - Photosynthetic (so they breathe in CO2 & out O2 for us). - Simple reproductive structures - Categorized on the basis of pigmentation, storage products, and composition of cells. |
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Microoganisms vary in size... |
1 um to 200 nm |
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Detrimental microbes.. |
- The BAD guys - Only 10% of microbes - Pathogenic (disease causing) |
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Beneficial Microbes... |
- The GOOD guys - About 90% of microbes |
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Beneficial Microbes (Ecological roles) |
- Important part of food chains/webs - Decay (bacteria and fungi/molds important) - Symbiosis (many microorganisms in symbiotic relationships). |
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Beneficial Microbes (Commercial use) |
- Chemical products (organic acids) - Food (Dairy products) - Recombinant DNA technology - Bioremediation |
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Symbiotic Relationships... |
The bacteria in your gut that breaks down food for you, then it gets nutrients in return from that breakdown. |
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Recombinant DNA Technology... |
- Splicing human genes into bacterial genomes for mass production. - Insulin production - Human growth hormone |
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Bioremidiation... |
- Sewage treatment, oil spills are cleaned up by microbes. |
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Robert Hooke |
- (1665) - Coined the word "cell" for biology, and the cells were rooms in a monasteries. |
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Antonie Von Leeuwenhoeck |
- (1675) - 1st person to observe live cells under the primitive microscope, mostly protozoans in pond water (wee beasties). - "Father of modern microscope" |
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Spontaneous Generation... |
Early belief that some forms of life could arise from vital forces present in nonliving or decomposing matter. (flies appearing out of no where). |
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Redi's Experiment... |
- Closed container contained NO maggots. - Open container HAD maggots. - Trying to find out if there was such thing as spontaneous generation. |
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Jablot's Experiment... |
- Covered container had NO growth. - Uncovered container HAD growth. - He thinks things must come from the air, but he left the containers out for too long, so they soon both became contaminated. |
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Sterile... |
When introduced it meant completely eliminating all life forms from objects or materials. |
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Some microbes in dust and air were resistant to high heat, and then ___ were later identified. |
Spores |
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Edward Jenner |
- (1798) - Developed first vaccine for smallpox from cowpox. - It was called varilation, and he crushed cow scabs and injected them to people. |
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Rudolf Virchow |
- (1859) - First to witness cell division life. - Proposed the idea of biogenesis.
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Biogenesis... |
All cells come from preexisting cells. |
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Louis Pasteur |
- (1861) - Completely refutes "spontaneous generation" with swan neck experiment. |
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Swan Neck Experiment... |
1. Put wine in flask. 2. Bent the neck like a swan. 3. And kept the wine sterile. - When the neck was cut, the air was able to go directly in and growth occurred. |
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Golden Age of Microbiology |
- (1860-1918) - Microbiologist made rapid advancements in pathology, techniques, media, and microscopy. - The idea of spoilage by bacteria spawned the germ theory of diseases. |
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Fermentation & Pasteurization... |
- Golden Age of Microbiology - Wine was constantly spoiling so Pasteur figured out how wine/alcohol was made and developed a way to save it. |
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Germ Theory |
Many diseases are caused by the growth of microbes in the body and not by sins, bad character, or poverty, ect. - "If bacteria spoils food, it can spoil us." |
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Joseph Lister |
- (1860) - English Surgeon - Applied "aseptic techniques" in order to reduce microbes in medical setting & prevent infections. - Used carbolic acid or phenol. - Sterilized instruments and supplies. |
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Robert Koch |
- (1876) - Proved a certain disease is specific to a particular microbe. - Studying anthrax.
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Koch's Postulates |
- A sequence of steps to determine which microbe causes which disease. 1. Isolate/discover bacterium in diseased animal. 2. Obtain a pure culture - then inject into a new healthy animal. 3. The new animal should obtain same disease. 4. Re-lsolate same bacterium from 2nd animal. |
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Alexander Fleming |
- (1929) - Scottish physician discovered the antibiotic penicillin by accident. |
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Taxonomy |
- A system for organizing, classifying and naming living things. - Primary concerns of taxonomy are classification, nomenclature, and identification. |
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What order does the taxonomy go in? |
1. Domain 2. Kingdom 3. Phylum 4. Class 5. Order 6. Family 7. Genus 8. Species |
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Domaines... |
Developed after the 5-kingdom system. |
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3 Major Domaines to know... |
1. Eukarya = All eukaryotic cells, have a nucleus, and organelles. 2. Eubacteria = (or bacteria), true bacteria, peptidoglycan, typically disease causing and grows at body temp. (98.6 F & 37 C). Prokaryotic. 3. Archaea = Odd bacteria that lives in extreme environments, high salt, heat ect. Prokaryotic. |
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Carlous Linnaeus |
- (1700's) - The father of taxonomy |
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Binomial Nomenclature |
- Genius Name (Capitalized & Italics/underlined & Noun) - Species Name (Not Capitalized & Italics/underlined & Adjective) |
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The Prokaryotic Cell... |
- No membrane bound organelles - Unbound DNA instead of a membrane bound nucleus - Cell wall made of peptidoglycan - Smaller than a eukaryotic cell |
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Bacterial Cell Structure (3 parts)... |
1. Cytoplasm 2. The Envelope 3. Accessories |
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Cytoplasm (Bacteria Cell) |
It fills the cell and houses the internal structures, and made of water, protein, and metabolism occurs here. - The nucleoid region - Ribosomes (Protein factories/translation) - Inclusions (Storage granules/vacuoles) ONLY 1 IN A BACTERIA CELL. |
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The Envelope (Bacteria Cell) |
Serves as the cell boundary and discerning gateway. It can have up to 3 layers, depending on cell type. 1. Outer membrane 2. Cell wall 3. Cytoplasmic membrane |
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The Accessories (Bacteria Cell) |
Fun extras that not all bacteria have. |
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Where is DNA located in a Bacteria cell? |
In the nuclieioid or nuclear region. It also has plasmids. |
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Gram Positive Cell Wall |
- Thick peptidoglycan (PG) Layer - Acidic polysaccharides - Teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid (These make the cell more flexible). - Only has 2 layers. |
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Gram Negative Cell Wall |
- Thin PG layer - Outer membrane - Lipid polysaccharide - Porins - Only has 3 layers. |
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Gram-Negative Cell 3 Layers |
- A bilayer of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that is toward the outside. - A phospholipid layer toward the inside with proteins through out. - Layer is attached to cell wall by lipoproteins. - Useful protection - Toxin to mammals. - Has porens. |
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Gram Positive Cell 2 Layers |
- Have teichoic acids throughout cell wall, increasing integrity of wall. - Cell wall is super thick to gram -. - Does NOT had LPS layer. - Does NOT have periplasm. |
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Periplasmic Space (Periplasm) |
Space in-between the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane. "Space that houses the cell wall, binding proteins, and enzymes." |
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What is an exception to Gram + and - ? |
Mycoplasma bacteria has no cell wall. |
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Cell wall in Bacteria... |
- Made of peptidoglycan. - Site of some antibiotic action. - Rigid and determines shape. - Porous like a woven basket; great strength, but openings. - Keeps cell from bursting under normal conditions. - Reason for staining differences. |
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The structure of the Cell wall,,,, |
- 2 alternanting sugars: NAG and NAM that encircle the cell like hoops on a barrel. - Held together with the peptido (protein) attached to NAM's only. - Protein differs between bacteria |
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The ____ of the peptidoglycan layer is what gives gram + and gram - different colors. |
Thickness |
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How to get a staining difference of Gram + and Gram - ? |
1. Crystal violet (Both purple) 2. Gram's iodine (Both purple) 3. Alcohol (Gram - loses all color & gram + is purple) 4. Safranin (Gram - is red & Gram + is purple) |
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Phospholipid Bilayer |
- Phosphate group (polar, hydrophilic, water loving) - Fatty acids (non-polar, hydrophobic, water hating) - Integral proteins (receptor sites, enzymes, transport proteins) - No cholesterol |
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How does the Cell membrane make ATP? |
Chemiosmosis because it doesn't have mitochondria. |
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Bacterial Cytoplasmic membrane Passive processes |
- Diffusion - Facilitated Dissusion - Osmosis |
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- Active transport |
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Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membrane group translocation |
- Substance chemically modified during transport. |
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Pili is for WHAT? |
Conjugation (mating) |
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Fimbriae is for WHAT? |
Attachment |
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Fimbriae |
- Hair like appendages (not cilia) - Protein projections that extend all the way from the inner membrane to the outside. - Used for attachment, adhesions. |
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Pili |
- Special type but different from fimbria. - Conjugation - Longer than fimbriae, shorter than flagella - Have only 1-2 typically per cell - It transfers DNA from one cell to another |
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Flagella is for WHAT? |
Movement |
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Flagella |
- Only way of bacteria movement - different than eukaryotic structure - Made of protein flagellin - Propeller action vs. wavelike action |
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Bacteria do NOT have what? |
Cilia |
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Run and Tumble method with Flagella .. |
Tumbles like a tumble weed in a spot, then it runs like a shooting star to the positive taxis, and tumbles there, then does a negative taxis away from something bad, then tumbles. |
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Taxis |
The movement of a bacterium toward or away from a particular stimulus. - Toward = + - Away = - |
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One Flagella is called what? |
Monotrichous |
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Cluster of flagella at one end of cell is called what? |
Lophotrichous |
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Flagella at both ends of the cell is called what? |
Amphitrichous |
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Flagella that covers the whole cell is called what? |
Peritrichous |
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Glycocalyx (2 different types) |
- Not all bacteria has it, but if they do its the outermost layer. - Guards against desiccation - Protects from phagocytosis - Can be attachment 1. Capsule 2. Slime Layer |
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Capsule |
- Protects bacteria from immune cells - Tends to be thick, ridged and smooth - Like a pill |
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Slime Layer |
- Enable attachment and aggregation of bacterial cells. - Thinner and less rigid, globular. |
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Biofilms |
- A biological part that grows from a slime layer and allows other bacteria to attach itself to it. |
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Vegatative cell |
The bacteria that produces the spore. |
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Endospores (sporogenesis) is used for WHAT? |
Survival |
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Endospores (sporogenesis) |
1. Made when environment goes bad 2. It contains all important parts of cell 3. Only made by certain bacteria (bacillus and clostridium) 4. Not reproduction 5. Autoclaving is only way to destroy them |
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Autoclaving |
Using high heat and pressure to kill a cell. |
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Single (cell arrangement) |
Cells found by themselves (1) |
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Diplo (cell arrangement) |
Cells in pairs (2) |
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Strepto (cell arrangement) |
Cells in chains (-----, oooo) |
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Staphylo (cell arrangement) |
Cells in grape like clusters
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Cell Morphology |
1. Cell shape 2. Cell arrangement 3. Cell size 4. Accessory structures |
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Coccus (cell shape) |
Circular/round |
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Bacillus (cell shape) |
Rods |
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Spirilum (cell shape) |
Squiggily shape |
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Phenotypic methods (classification) |
- Physical characteristics - Cell morphology - staining - Biochemical test - enzyme test |
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Molecular Methods (classification) |
- DNA sequence - 16S RNA - Protein sequence. |
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A virus is.....3 words.... |
1. Obligate 2. Intracellular 3. Parasite |
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Obligate intracellular parasite means what? |
- Have to... - Be inside a cell... - To use our cells as metabolism (+ to them) while hurting our cells (- to us). |
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1884 Pasteur & virus |
- Developed first rabies vaccine - Proposed the term "virus" |
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1892 Iwanowski & 1898 Beijeerinck |
- Discovered fluids from infected tobacco plants could be filtered off all cells, but still remained contagious. - "Filterable Virus" - Looking for something filterable that caused tobacco mosaic disease. |
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1935 Biochemist Wendell Stanley |
- Purified and crystallized tobacco mosaic virus. |
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1940's Electron microscope |
- Could finally see viral shapes and sizes. |
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Characteristics of Viruses... |
- Minuscle (super small) - Acellular infectious agent - Cause infections of humans, animals, plants, and bacteria. - Causes most diseases that plague the world. |
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Living components of a virus... |
- Nucleic acids - Reproduction - Respond to stimuli - Evolve |
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Nonliving components of a virus... |
- DNA or RNA, not both - Obligated intracellular parasite - Can be crystallized - No growth or metabolism - No cell structure |
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Size range of a virus... |
- Smallest infectious agents - Ultramicroscopic an electron microscope is necessary to examine. - 2,000 bacteriophages could fit inside an average bacterial cell. - 50 million poliovirus could fit into average human cell. |
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What are the 3 POSSIBLE pieces to viruses? |
1. Nucleic acid core (all viruses have it) 2. Capsid (all viruses have it) 3. Envelope (optional not all viruses have this) |
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Nucleic acid core in viruses... |
One or many strands of DNA or RNA but not both. |
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Capsid in viruses... |
Protective outer shell made of protein subunits called capsomeres. |
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Envelope in viruses... |
Optional, not all viruses have this, usually a modified piece of the hosts cell membrane. |
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What are the 2 major structures of viruses? |
1. Naked nucleocapsid virus 2. Enveloped virus |
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Nucleic Acids with virus |
- Unlike cells, viruses contain either DNA or RNA, not both - Possess only the genes to invade and regulate the metabolic activity of host cells. - No viral metabolic genes. |
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What is the contents of the nucleic acid core in a virus? |
Must have these 4 things! 1. Genes for regulating the actions of the host. 2. Genes for synthesizing the viral genetic material 3. Genes for synthesizing the viral capsid and proteins. 4. Genes for assembling and packaging the mature virus. |
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Capsid of virus characteristics... |
- Protective outer shell that surrounds viral nucleic acid. - Capsid spikes - Composed of capsomer subnits - 2 type (helical & icosahedral) |
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Icosahedron Capsid virus... |
- 3-D, 20-sided with 12 evenly spaced corners. - Variation in capsomer number (polio virus 32 capsomeres & adenovirus 2240 capsomers). |
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Naked Helical Capsid virus... |
- Ex: Tobacco mosaic virus - Nucleocapsid is rigid and tightly wound into a cylinder-shaped packaged. |
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Enveloped Helical Virus... |
- Ex: Influenza, measles, rabies - Nucleocapsid is more flexible. |
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Helical tubular rod shaped capsomeres makes up the helical virus... |
- Bounded to form a series of hollow discs - Bound together to form a tube that resembles a bracelet. - Complex shape. |
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Bacteriophages... |
- Combination of icosahedral and helical plus other pieces. - Viruses that attack bacteria - Discovered in 1915 (end of golden age) - reproduction can happen in 2 different ways. |
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Enveloped virsus are usually made from...? |
The hosts cell membrane. |
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Many or all of the regular proteins in an enveloped or naked viruses are substituted with...? |
Viral proteins |
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____ are necessary for recognition and attachment to the next host cell. |
Spikes |
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An envelope in a virus is.... |
- Lipid and proteins - has spikes - During release of animal viruses, a part of the host membrane is taken - Enable pleomorphic shape of the virus (spherical or filamentous) |
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Function of capsid/envelope... |
- Protection: Outer layer protects iron from enzymes and chemicals from the outside. - Penetration of host cell: Outer layers bind to the host and assist in the insertion of the viral nucleic acid. - Activation of immune system: Portions of the capsid/envelopes stimulate the immune system and produce antibodies for future. |
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Pox virus... |
- Several layers of lipoproteins - Course surface fibrils |
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Bacteriophage... |
- Polyhedral head - Helical tail - Fibers for attachment |
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Viral Replication |
- Dependent on hosts organelles and enzymes to produce new virions. |
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Lytic replication... |
Replication cycle usually results in death and lysis of host cell. - Caused by lytic phage. |
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Lytic Cycle... |
1. Adsorption (Attachement): Engages host cell by chance of collisions. 2. Penetration (Entry): Virus injects DNA into bacterial cell. 3. Synthesis: Bacterial cell replicating viral DNA & protein synthesis. 4. Assembly and Maturation: All pieces glue together. 5. Release by Lysis: Allows viruses to escape. |
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What is the average virus burst time? |
20-40 min to go from penetration to release. |
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What is the average virus burst size? |
50-200 viruses per cell burst. |
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Lysogeny... |
- Modified replication cycle - Infected host cells grow and reproduce normally for generations before they lyse - Caused by temperate phages - This conversion results when phages carry genes that alter phenotype of a bacterium. - Hangs out in bacteria for a while before they lyse. |
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Lysogenic Cycle... |
1. Adsorption (attachment): Virus engages host cell by chance collision. 2. Penetration: Injection of DNA into bacteria. 3. Lysogenic Conversion: Bacteriophage DNA is integrated into Bacterial DNA. Cell goes through binary fission the bacteriophage DNA is copied with it. 4. Excision: Due to environmental bad change the prophage comes out of bacterial DNA and takes over the cell. 5. Synthesis 6. Assembly 7. Release by Lysis. |
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Host Range... |
This is the number of cells that a virus can infect, and it is a limited number. |
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Bacteriophage can ONLY affect what? |
Bacteria |
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In an animal virus, the virus spikes and cell receptors must exactly fit for what to occur? |
Adsorption |
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Endocytosis (animal virus penetration) |
- The whole virus is engulfed by the host cell. - Enclosed in a vacuole. - Enzymes in the vacuole dissolves the envelope and capsid, called uncoating. - Naked and envelope viruses |
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Membrane Fusion (animal virus penetration) |
- The virus simply merges with the host cells membrane and uncoating at the same time. - Only membrane "envelope" viruses. |
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Where do DNA viruses synthesis/assemble? |
The nucleus |
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Where do RNA viruses synthesis/assemble? |
The cytoplasm. - Also some have positive/negative sense strands. |
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______ and complex viruses will LYSE or rupture the host cell. |
Non-enveloped |
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____ viruses are released by budding also known as EXOCYTOSIS (or budding). |
Envelope |
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The process of Exocytosis in animal viruses... |
- Begins with the nucleocapsid binds to the membrane. - The membrane forms a pouch and then that pouch pinches off the host cell and forms the envelope. - Gradual process of shedding viruses. |
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Enveloped viruses have what genes? |
Genes that will let them know they need an envelope when reproducing. |
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After effects of viral animal infection... |
- No matter how virus leave the cell, irreversible damage has occurred. - Letal due to damage to metabolism, organelles, and cell membrane. - Burst size for animal cells range 3-4,000. |
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What are the 4 cytopathic effects? |
- Damage to the host cell due to a viral infection. 1. inclusion bodies 2. Syncytia 3. Chronic latent state 4. Transformation |
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Syncytia (cytopathic effect) |
The cells are fused together forming one giant cell with multiple nuclei. |
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Inclusion Bodies (cytopathic effect) |
There are random inclusion bodies within the cells that can be stained to see. |
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Latency (Chronic latent state- cytopathic effect) |
- The cell harbors the virus and is not immediately lysed, these are considered persistent infection and can last from a few weeks to lifelong. - Infected but do not show symptoms. - Cells in body but can reappear. |
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Oncoviruses (cytopathic effect) |
- Permanently altering the cells genetic material, leading to cancer. - Transformation (alters in DNA so changes how cell grows) - These cells have increased growth, chromosomal alteration, cell surface alteration, and indefinite cell division. |
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Prions |
- Small protein fibrils found deposited in the brain tissue of animals infected with spongiform encephalopathies. - Composed primarily of protein. - Shape flip with other good proteins |
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We have a normal protein in our body that looks like what? |
Other good proteins that we have. |
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Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease |
- Caused by porin - Affects nervous system, gradual degeneration and death. - No cure - Long period of latency
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Bovine spongiform enoephalopathy "Mad cow disease" |
- Can be acquired by consumption of contaminated beef. - First incidence of prion disease transmission from animal to human. |
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3 major modes of viral drug actions... |
1. Halting penetration of virus into host cell 2. Blocking transcription and/or translation 3. Preventing assembly, or maturation or viral processes. |
