Microbiology 2

Front 1

minimal inhibitory concentration

Back 1

lowest dilution with no turbidity.

Front 2

Minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC)

Back 2

lowest dilution With no growth when subbed.

Front 3

Factors that influence disk diffusion susceptibility in bauer kirby?

Back 3

medium, agar depth, disk potency, inoculum concentration, pH, and β-lactamase production by the test organisms.

Front 4

Inhibition of cell wall synthesis

Back 4

penicillin, vancomycin, bacitracin, penicillins, cephalosporins, monobactams, carbapenems

Front 5

Combination with cell membranes

Back 5

polymixin causes holes in cytoplasm

Front 6

Action on eukaryotic membranes

Back 6

the polyenes: sterols present in the cell wall of eukaryotes. Fungi are inhibited, but dangerous for human use, as it is not as selectively toxic.

Front 7

Inhibition of protein synthesis

Back 7

chloramphenicol, streptomycin, neomycin, kanamycin, tetracyclines, erythromycin

Front 8

50S ribosome subunits

Back 8

erythromycin (macrolides), chloramphenicol, clindamycin, lincomycin

Front 9

30S ribosome subunits

Back 9

30S ribosome subunits

Front 10

Aminoglycosides

Back 10

streptomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin, kanamicin, amikacin.

Front 11

Nitrofurans

Back 11

(urinary tract only, not antibiotic)

Front 12

DNA gyrase

Back 12

nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin (quinolones) Novobiocin

Front 13

DNA directed RNA polymerase

Back 13

rifampin

Front 14

Bacteriocines

Back 14

compound produced by bacteria active against closely related bacteria.

Front 15

Ciprofloxacin

Back 15

Ciprofloxacin is used to treat urinary tract infections and anthrax caused by penicillin-resistant bacillus anthracis.
Fluorinated derivatives of nalidixic acid are more soluble than nalidixic acid and reach clinically therapeutic levels in blood and tissues.

Front 16

Prontosil

Back 16

It is broken down in the body to sulfanilamide, the active agent

Front 17

Sulfanilamide competes with _________ which is a precursor of __________

Back 17

para aminobenzoic acid
folic acid

Front 18

Each year more than _____ metric tons of chemotherapeutic agents are manufactured.

Back 18

500

Front 19

Mechanisms of antibiotic Resistance?

Back 19

1. Resistance may be inherent or can be acquired.
2. Organism may not have the structure affected. Ex. Mycoplasma have no cell wall - are resistant to penicillin.
3. Organism may be impermeable to antibiotic.
4. Organism alters the antibiotic to an inactive form.
5. Organism may modify the target of the antibiotic.
6. By genetic change, the organism may alter the metabolic pathway that the antibiotic blocks.
7. The organism may be able to pump out any antibiotic entering the cell (efflux).
8. Genetic change: due to plasmid transfer or at the chromosomal level.

Front 20

Type of resistance:
inactivation of antibiotic, e.g. penicilinase; methylases, acetylases phosphoryl-ases

Back 20

penicillins, chlorampheni-col
plasmid and chromosomal

Front 21

Type of resistance:
reduced permeability

Back 21

penicillin
chromosomal

Front 22

Type of resistance:
efflux

Back 22

tetracyclines, chloramph.
plasmid chromosomal

Front 23

Type of resistance:
alteration of target; ribos.

Back 23

Erythro.
Strepto.
chromosomal

Front 24

Type of resistance:
alteration of target; DNA gyrase

Back 24

quinolones
chromosomal

Front 25

Type of resistance:
development of resistant pathway

Back 25

sulfonamides
chromosomal

Front 26

Anti-fungals?

Back 26

Polyenes - disrupt membrane integrity
polyoxins - inhbit chitin synthesis
azoles and allyamines - inhibit ergosterol synthesis
5-fluorcytosine - nucleotide analog that inhibits na synthesis
griseofulvin - inhibits microtubule formation

Front 27

Virion

Back 27

complete virus particle

Front 28

Capsid

complete pacakge is called?

Back 28

protein coat surrounding nucleic acid center.

nuclocapsid

Front 29

Capsomere

Back 29

protein subunit making up capsid

Front 30

Viral structure

Back 30

technically geometrical structures called icosahedrons with 20 triangular faces and 12 corners or rod like. Some are enveloped. Roughly 30-300 nm in size.

Front 31

Viral quantification:
Phage overlay

Back 31

plaques due to lysis, pfu.

Front 32

Viral quantification:
Animal viruses

Back 32

tissue culture, cpe, count analogous to plaques.

Front 33

Viral Replication
Attachment

Back 33

(adsorption) of virion to susceptible host. High specificity for host.

Front 34

Viral Replication
Penetration (injection

Back 34

infectivity of the virus particles disappears, called eclipse, due to the uncoating of the virus particles

Front 35

Viral Replication
Early steps in replication

Back 35

host cell biosynthetic machinery is altered as prelude to virus nucleic acid synthesis, virus specific enzymes are typically made.

Front 36

Viral Replication
Latent Period

Back 36

Replication of virus nucleic acid and protein. No infectious virions are present extracellularly.

Front 37

Viral Replication
Assembly of structural subunits

Back 37

packaging of nucleic acid into new virus particles. Titer of active virions inside cell rises dramatically. At this time, if the cells are broken open, active virus can be detected. The protein coat forms spontaneously from protein capsomeres by self assembly.

Front 38

Viral Replication
Release of mature virions

Back 38

due to cell lysis, budding or excretion process. Release of virions occurs after breakdown of cw by lysozyme like protein.

Front 39

Burst size

Back 39

the no. Of virions released, varies with virus and host cell.

Front 40

eclipse

Back 40

infectivity of the virus particles disappears

Front 41

Viral Replication
Timing

Back 41

varies from 20-60 min in bacteria. Viruses to 8-40hr in most animal viruses.

Front 42

Early proteins

Back 42

synthesized soon after infection, necessary for replication of viral nucleic acid

Front 43

Late proteins

Back 43

synthesized later, protein coat.

Front 44

Temperate bacteriophages

Back 44

Direct to lysis, or integration of the virus DNA into the host DNA – lysogenization. The lysogenic cell can also be induced to produce mature virus and lyse.

Front 45

Main Types of bacterial viruses
RNA ss

Back 45

MS2 (small globular)

Front 46

Main Types of bacterial viruses
RNA ds

Back 46

q6 (Small globular,membranous)

Front 47

Main Types of bacterial viruses
DNA ss

Back 47

T3,T7 (Small lander, no neck)

Front 48

Main Types of bacterial viruses
DNA ds

Back 48

T2, 74 (Large lander, long, coiled neck)

Front 49

Class I

Back 49

ds DNA +/-

Front 50

Class II

Back 50

ss DNA + or -

Front 51

ClassVII

Back 51

dsDNA +/-

Front 52

Class III

Back 52

ds RNA

Front 53

Class IV

Back 53

ss RNA +
Virus genome serves directly as mRNA.

Front 54

Class V

Back 54

ss RNA –

Front 55

RNA viruses, whether +, - or ds require a _________.

Back 55

specific RNA -dependent RNA polymerase.

Front 56

RNA Replicase.

Back 56

virus specific and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

Front 57

Class VI

Back 57

ss RNA +
Retrovirus

Front 58

Process of copying information from RNA into DNA is called ____, requiring an enzyme called _____.

Back 58

reverse transcription
reverse transcriptase

Front 59

Codon

Back 59

- triplet of bases in mRNA that code for an amino acid.

Front 60

Anti-Codon

Back 60

triplet of bases in tRNA that code for an amino acid.

Front 61

degeneracy

Back 61

A single amino acid is frequently coded for by several different but related triplets of bases.

Front 62

Nonsense codons

Back 62

Those that don’t lead to amino acid production. May function as punctuation - ie termination of the growing polypeptide chain.

Front 63

lateral gene flow

Back 63

genes are transferred from donor to recipient, rather than mother to daughter.

Front 64

the genotype of an organism is designated by

Back 64

3 lowercase letters followed by a capital letter all in italics indicating the gene involved, e.g. hisC

Front 65

The phenotype of an organism is designated by

Back 65

a capital followed by 2 lowercase and a + or – to indicate presence or absence of property.
E.g. His+ strain is capable of making histidine, whereas his- is incapable.

Front 66

selectable mutation

Back 66

gives the mutant a clear advantage under certain environmental conditions

Front 67

Lederberg replica plating technique

Back 67

used for screening nutritional mutants.

Front 68

Auxotroph

Back 68

a mutant that has a nutritional requirement for growth.

Front 69

Prototroph

Back 69

parent from which auxotroph is derived.

Front 70

Bulk of spontaneous mutations occur during DNA replication as result of

Back 70

errors in pairing bases.

Front 71

Point mutations

Back 71

Mutations involving a change in one base pair

Front 72

silent mutations

Back 72

Because of degeneracy, not all mutations in polypeptide encoding genes result in changes in polypeptide

Front 73

missense mutation

Back 73

Changes in 1st or 2nd base more often lead to significant changes in peptide leading to an inactivity or reduced activity.

Front 74

nonsense mutation

Back 74

point mutation resulting in termination of translation causing incomplete polypeptide due to formation of stop codon.

Front 75

Transition

Back 75

substitution of one purine base (a or g) for another purine , or one pyrimidine (c or t) is substituted for another pyrimidine.

Front 76

Transversion

Back 76

point mutation where a purine base is substituted for a pyrimidine or vice versa.

Front 77

Frameshift mutation

Back 77

deletion or insertion of a base pair causes this with serious results. This mutation is a result of replication error. Shifts in the reading frame of messenger RNA are caused by insertion or deletion mutations in DNA.

Front 78

Transposon mutagenesis

Back 78

insertion of a transposable element occurs within a gene, loss of gene function results. Transposable elements can enter chromosome at various locations and are used by microbial geneticists as mutagenic agents.

Front 79

Back mutations or reversions

Back 79

point mutations are reversible by process of reversion, resulting in a revertant, a strain in which the wild type phenotype that was lost in the mutant is restored. Can be due to restoration at the same site or occur at a different site (called suppressor mutation).

Front 80

mutagens

Back 80

chemical, physical, or biological agents to increase the mutation rate

Front 81

Nucleotide base analogs

Back 81

molecules resembling DNA purine and pyrimidine bases in structure but with faulty pairing properties.

Front 82

5-bromouracil

Back 82

can base pair with guanine causing at to gc substitutions.

Front 83

2-aminopurine

Back 83

can base pair with cytosine, causing at to gc substitutions.

Front 84

Alkylating agents

Back 84

powerful mutagens that induce at higher frequency than analogs.

Front 85

mutagens:
Nitrous acid

Back 85

Deaminates a & c
AT  GC, GC →AT

Front 86

mutagens:
Hydroxylamine

Back 86

Reacts with c
GC→AT

Front 87

mutagens:
Monofunctional

Back 87

Put methyl on g
GC →AT

Front 88

mutagens:
Bifunctional

Back 88

Cross link DNA strands
Both point mutation and deletions

Front 89

mutagens:
Intercalative dyes
Acridines, ethidium bromide

Back 89

Inserts between 2 base pairs
Microinsertions and microdeletions

Front 90

mutagens:
UV

Back 90

Pyrimidine dimer
Repair may lead to error or deletion

Front 91

mutagens:
ionizing

Back 91

Free radical, break chain
Repair may lead to error or deletion

Front 92

1. Transformation

Back 92

free DNA inserted directly into competent recipient cell.

Front 93

2. Transduction

Back 93

transfer of bacterial DNA via temperate or defective phage.

Front 94

3. Conjugation

Back 94

DNA transfer via actual cell to cell contact between donor and recipient.

Front 95

Competence

Back 95

the ability of the recipient to take up free DNA. Only certain strains are competent and this seems to be genetically determined.

Front 96

In bacillus only about ____ of the cells become transformable while in streptococcus, ____ but for only a few minutes.

Back 96

20%
100%

Front 97

In ___ only about 20% of the cells become transformable while in ____, 100% but for only a few minutes.

Back 97

bacillus
streptococcus

Front 98

Integration

Back 98

DNA is bound at cell surface by a DNA binding protein, after which the entire double stranded fragment is taken up, or a nuclease degrades one and the other is taken up.

Front 99

Transfection

Back 99

the bacteria transformed with DNA extracted from a bacterial virus. It has become a standard mechanism for studying transformation.

Front 100

Competence can be induced in non-transforming bacteria by ____

Back 100

treatment with calcium in the cold.

Front 101

Generalized transduction

Back 101

host DNA from any portion of host genome becomes part of mature virus in place of virus genome. If the donor genes don’t undergo homologous recombination with host genome, they will be lost, as they can’t replicate independently and are not part of virus genome.

Front 102

Specialized transduction

Back 102

only in some temperate viruses; DNA from a specific region of the host genome is integrated directly in to virus genome, usually replacing some virus genes. The virus is in both cases is usually non-infective (therefore called defective) as a virus because bacterial genes have replaced some necessary viral genes.

Front 103

transducing particle

Back 103

When infected with phage, the lytic cycle may be initiated. The enzymes responsible for packaging viral DNA, sometimes package host DNA by accident.
The resulting virion is called a transducing particle. When released, the lysate contains mixture of normal and transducing particles.

Front 104

conjugative plasmids

Back 104

A process by which plasmids are transferred from donor to recipient [cell to cell transfer]. This is encoded by some plasmids themselves

Front 105

episomes

Back 105

Some plasmids called episomes can integrate into the chromosome, and under these conditions their replication comes under control of the chromosome. This is similar to that of several viruses whose genome can become incorporated prophages.

Front 106

curing

Back 106

Plasmids can be eliminated from cells (curing) by various treatments. This causes inhibition of plasmid replication without inhibition of chromosome replication.

Front 107

Transmissibility by conjugation is controlled by set of genes within plasmid called the ____ region

Back 107

tra

Front 108

rolling circle replication

Back 108

Process called rolling circle replication best explains DNA transfer. 1 strand of plasmid DNA circle is nicked and is transferred to recipient. The enzyme also has helicase activity and is involved in unwinding the strand to be transferred.
As this transfer occurs, DNA synthesis by rolling circle mechanism replaces the transferred strand in donor with complementary strand which is also then made in recipient.

Front 109

Hfr

Back 109

– if plasmid acts like an episome and integrates with host chromosome, then chromosomal genes are mobilized and transfer of host genes takes place.
Those that have a chromosome integrated f plasmid are called hfr and are unable to take up a 2nd f plasmid.

Front 110

guilds

Back 110

Metabolically related populations of microorganisms

Front 111

Energy enters ecosystems in form of

Back 111

sunlight, organic carbon, and reduced inorganic substances.

Front 112

allochthonous organic matter

Back 112

organic matter that enters from the outside

Front 113

Biogeochemical cycle

Back 113

microorganisms play a role in the recycling of several elements , the study of which is called biogeochemistry.

Front 114

prime niche

Back 114

Ecological theory states that for each organism there is a prime niche.

Front 115

microenvironments

Back 115

Small organisms live in small environments so they are called microenvironments. E.g. A 3 mm soil particle can contain several different microenvironments, different chemically and physically.

Front 116

Experiments demonstrate their oxygen content can vary, even throughout such a small particle with the outer zones being fully ____, and the inner zones completely _____ with intermediate or microaerophilic zones between.

Back 116

oxic
anoxic

Front 117

Biofilms

Back 117

Organisms sticking to surface, encased in slime, usually polysaccharide. Biofilms trap nutrients essential for growth. Cell – cell communication is critical in biofilm development and maintenance. Attachment is a signal for the expression of biofilm specific genes, which encode proteins that synthesize cell to cell signaling molecules that begin polysaccharide formation.

Front 118

homoserine lactones

Back 118

The major signaling molecules in pseudomonas biofilm formation

Front 119

quorum sensing

Back 119

chemotactic agents to recruit nearby organisms,

Front 120

Reasons for biofilm formation

Back 120

1- Allows cells to remain in favorable niche.
2- Allows cells to live in close association fostering genetic exchange and quorum sensing.
3- Type of defense – resist physical force of current or phagocytosis.
4- Biofilms may be the typical way bacteria grow in nature.

Front 121

mineral soils

Back 121

weathering of rock

Front 122

organic soils

Back 122

sedimentation from bogs or marshes

Front 123

rhizosphere

Back 123

soil around roots

Front 124

Predominant microorganisms in oxic areas

Back 124

cyanobacteria and algae

Front 125

Predominant microorganisms in anoxic areas

Back 125

anoxygenic phototrophs

Front 126

Phytoplankton

Back 126

algae floating or suspended in water

Front 127

Benthic algae

Back 127

those attached to bottom or sides.

Front 128

oligotrophs

Back 128

Adapted to grow under dilute conditions.

Front 129

epilimnion

Back 129

warmer and less dense surface layer in lakes

Front 130

hypolimnion

Back 130

cold dense bottom layers in lakes

Front 131

Thermocline

Back 131

zone of transition between these two layers in lakes

Front 132

Biochemical oxygen demand (bod)-

Back 132

Oxygen consuming property of a body of water – directly related to amount of suspended organic matter.

Front 133

Objective in water treatment

Back 133

reduce bod.

Front 134

often develop in response to pollution by inorganic nutrients

Back 134

Algae, cyanobacteria, and macrophytes (aquatic weeds)

Front 135

The largest carbon reservoir is

Back 135

earth’s crust

Front 136

global turnover time of carbon

Back 136

about 40 years

Front 137

humus

Back 137

complex mixture from protoplasmic constituents of soil microorganisms.

Front 138

most rapid turnover of carbon

Back 138

Co2 of atmosphere

Front 139

The single most important contribution of co2 to the atmosphere

Back 139

microbial decomposition of dead organic material.

Front 140

The only way that new organic c is synthesized

Back 140

photosynthesis (more important), chemosynthesis (less important).

Front 141

Methanogens

Back 141

make methane

Front 142

methanotrophs

Back 142

consume methane

Front 143

Methanogenesis is carried out by a group of

Back 143

methanogens, strict anaerobes

Front 144

Most methanogens use ___ as a terminal electron acceptor in ____ respiration, reducing it to ____ with h2.

Back 144

c02, anaerobic, methane

Front 145

primary fermenters.

Back 145

decompose complex molecules

Front 146

Syntrophs

Back 146

a species that lives off another species

Front 147

secondary fermenters

Back 147

species that ferment the products of primary fermentors

Front 148

homoacetogens

Back 148

Acetate and h2 + co2 from primary fermentations can be directly converted to methane, although h2 + co2 can also be consumed by them.

Front 149

Primary treatment of wastewater

Back 149

Wastewater is pumped into the reservoir (left) where settling of solids occurs. As the water level rises, the water spills through the grates to successively lower levels. Water at the lowest level, now free of solids, enters the spillway (arrow) and is pumped to a secondary treatment facility.

Front 150

Anoxic secondary wastewater treatment processes

Back 150

Anoxic sludge digester
Trickling filter
Aeration tank
Activated sludge installation

Front 151

thalus

Back 151

fungal body

Front 152

Hypha

Back 152

unit of structure of a mold, a tube shaped structure exhibiting cytoplasmic streaming toward tip as it grows

Front 153

Mycelium

Back 153

– hyphae forming an interwoven mat of growth consisting of vegetative hyphae extending into medium and aerial hyphae extending into the air above medium.

Front 154

Rhizoid

Back 154

root like structure

Front 155

Coenocytic

Back 155

description of hypha, a tube like structure with many nuclei.

Front 156

Chlamydospore

Back 156

asexual spore borne at the end of a conidophore.

Front 157

Sporangium

Back 157

sack like structure containing sporangiospores (asexual).

Front 158

Zoospores

Back 158

Zoospores

Front 159

Gametangia

Back 159

specialized sex hypha that grow toward each other.

Front 160

Ascospores

Back 160

sexual spores borne in a sack like structure the ascus.

Front 161

Basidiospores

Back 161

spores borne on a structure called a basidium.

Front 162

Basidiocarp

Back 162

the fructification holding many basidia.

Front 163

types of fungi

Back 163

1- Ascomycetes
2- Zygomycetes
3- Basidiomycetes
4- Deuteromycetes

Front 164

Aerial hyphae

Back 164

extend above surface

Front 165

Vegetative hyphae

Back 165

below surface

Front 166

Aseptate hyphae

Back 166

no cross walls

Front 167

Septate hyphae

Back 167

cross walls

Front 168

Budding yeast

Back 168

no hyphae

Front 169

Asexual Fungi

Back 169

Deuteromyces
fungi imperfecti

Front 170

Sexual fungi

Back 170

Ascomycetes
Zygomycetes
Basidiomycetes

Front 171

Traditional biotechnology

Back 171

large scale manufacture by microorganisms of products that they normally make.

Front 172

Engineered organisms or recombinant DNA

Back 172

use of organisms with modified genome specifically selected and placed into organism.

Front 173

Fermenter

Back 173

refers to an organism that ferments

Front 174

fermentor

Back 174

to a vessel that is used for an industrial microbial process; it may be either aerobic or anaerobic

Front 175

Metabolic specialists

Back 175

microbes that have been altered by mutation to produce large amounts of metabolites.

Front 176

Strain improvement

Back 176

eg penicillium chrysogenum, 1µl/ml vs 85000 µl/ml –achieved via mutation and selection.

Front 177

Ideal industrial microorganisms:

Back 177

a. Grow rapidly – doesn’t tie up equipment, contamination less likely, easier to control environment
b. Are non-pathogenic
c. Are free of toxins
d. Can be removed from culture easily, e.g. Yeasts, filamentous fungi, filamentous bacteria

Front 178

Bioconversion

Back 178

cells are used to chemically convert a specific substance from one form to another.

Front 179

Microbial products

Back 179

a. Cells themselves, e.g. Yeasts, lactobacillus, mushrooms.
b. Enzymes – amylases, proteases, lipases, rennin, isomerase (fructose from glucose), penicillin acylase (used in production of semisynthetic penicillins).
c. Commodity metabolites – ethanol, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, methanol.
d. Growth factors – vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, steroids, alkaloids

Front 180

use of microbial products:
Pharmaceutical

Back 180

antibiotics, steroids, steroid conversion, hormones.

Front 181

use of microbial products:
Genetically engineered

Back 181

insulin, human growth hormone, antiviral, anti-tumor, e.g. Interferons, lymphokines, blood clotting, vaccines (hbv), monoclonal antibodies.

Front 182

use of microbial products:
Agricultural uses

Back 182

insulin, human growth hormone, antiviral, anti-tumor, e.g. Interferons, lymphokines, blood clotting, vaccines (hbv), monoclonal antibodies.

Front 183

use of microbial products:
Specialty chemicals and food additives

Back 183

amino acids, glutamic acid, lysine, tryptophan, aspartic acid, aspartame, phenylalanine, vitamins.

Front 184

use of microbial products:
Commodity chemicals

Back 184

energy production.

Front 185

Secondary Metabolites
Trophophase

Back 185

growth phase.

Front 186

Secondary Metabolites
Iidiophase

Back 186

metabolic production phase.

Front 187

fermentor probe

Back 187

computer converts these data into microbiological or biochemical terms, and graphs the data. Processes data to measure growth, decides when and how much nutrient to add, optimal conditions maintained.

Front 188

β-lactam antibiotics

Back 188

Penicillins and cephalosporins, medically useful, contain the β-lactam ring, a complex 2 membered heterocyclic ring. They act by inhibiting peptioglycan synthesis.

Front 189

Major ingredient of penicillin production is

Back 189

corn steep liquor

Front 190

Cyanocobalamin (B12)

Back 190

synthesized in nature exclusively by microorganisms. B12 has cobalt as a central part of its structure; yields are increased by adding cobalt to the medium.

Propionibacterium yield from 19 – 23 mg/l, pseudomonas denitrificans produceds 60 mg/l in a 2 stage process using molasses as the c source.

Front 191

Riboflavin (B2)

Back 191

synthesized by many organisms including bacteria, yeasts and fungi. Ashbya gossypii produces up to 7g/l

Front 192

Glutamic acid

Back 192

used as a flavor enhancer. (MSG)

Front 193

Aspartic acid and Phenylalanine

Back 193

the ingredients of Aspartame.

Front 194

Lysine

Back 194

an essential amino acid and is produced by brevibacterium flavum for use as a food additive.

Front 195

steroid hormones created in microbial bioconversion

Back 195

progesterone
11-α-hydroxyprogesterone
Estrogens
androgens
Hydrocortisone
cortisone

Front 196

Induced enzymes

Back 196

inducer is present, therfore added during stationary phase.

Front 197

bacterial proteases

Back 197

used in laundry detergents that also include amylases, lipases, reductases.

Front 198

Laundry enzymes

Back 198

formed by alkaliphilic bacteria, mainly bacillus licheniformis.

Front 199

Amylases and glucoamylases

Back 199

are important in the production of glucose from starch that can then be isomerized to fructose used in the food industry as high fructose syrup, made from corn, wheat, potatoes.

Front 200

Extremozymes

Back 200

enzymes made by hyperthermophilic microorganisms, function at high temperature. Useful because many industrial processes work best at high temperature.

Ex- Taq and pfu DNA polymerases used in pcr (polymerase chain reaction).

Front 201

Thermostable ___, ____ and ____ isolated and characterized.

Back 201

amylases
pullulanases
xylanases