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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is microbiology?
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the study of microorganisms(microbes)- organisms that are too small to be seen with the uaided eye
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Why study microogranisms?
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man's daily life is interwoven inextricably with m.o., they abound in the soil, seas, and air, M.o. are both favorable and unfavorable to man
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What are the favoable microbes to man?
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human body dependant on microbes(intestine), important in agriculture, and greatest importance to the environment
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How are microbes favorable to the human body?
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in the intestines- digestion, synthesis of vitamins( B and K), and protection from pathogenic m.o.
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How are microbes favorable to agriculture?
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useful in industry- alcohol for wines/ and beer (yeast), raising bread( yeast), used in flavoring cheese and other dairy products derived from milk
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How are microbes favorable to the environment?
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causing disintegration of animal and plant remains and converting them to gases and minerals that can be recycled in other organisms
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Describe the unfavorable microbes of man.
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pathogens(desease causing infectious agent) - microorganisms that cause human diseases - tiny but important percentage of all microogranisms 1-2%
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from ______ the black death spread through europe
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1346-1351
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What were the characteristics of the Black death(bubonic plauge)?
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blackining areas on skin caused by hemmorages
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Where did the name come from?
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the buboes that formed in the lymph nodes in the groin (chest), and armpits
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The agent of the bubonic plauge was _____, it was a non motile Gram negative rod
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yersinia pestis
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What were the virulence factors of the bubonic plauge?
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multiplies within phagocytes(white blood cells), produces capsule at body temperature, new cells can envade phagocytosis, endotoxin release leads to shock
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Where was the plauge found? and transmitted?
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infected rodents population and infected rat fleas (zoonosis)- rat flea bites or rat's fleas feces scratched into bite
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Who was credited to first observation of a microogranism?
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Robert Hooke - 1665 publishjed Micrographia a description of microscopes including the compoud microscope - drawings of 25X cells and common bread mold
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Who is credited for first obersving bacteria?
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Leeuwenhoek - created the simple microscope ( single lens with magnification aroud 300X to 500X) in 1674 found "wee animicules" in pond water(protazoa) and in 1684 found bacterial cells fom dental plaque (1st finding)
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The doctrine that organisms could arise from nonliving matter, such as through putrefaction and decay
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spontaneous generation
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belief until early 18th century that life arises spontaneously from nonlivig matter
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spontaneous generation
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performed experiments in 1688 which disproved that maggots arise from decaying meat
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Francesco Redi
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believed a "vital force" pervaded all organisms
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vitalists ( John Needham)
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experiment in 1748 - boiled mutton gravy and sealed tubes with cork, found microscopic animals. putrefaction couldgenerate the vital force needed for spontaneous generation
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john needham
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italian preist 1st suggested life arise only from other living cells... showed that heating a sealed flask of meat brother resulted in no growth of organisms
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Lazzarro Spallanzani
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Who disproved the idea of spontaneous generation?
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Louis Pasteur - 1859 - contest through french acadmy of schence allowed him to disproved spontaneous generation through the swan neck flask experiment
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scientific study from which the source, caused and mode of transmiison of a disease can be identified
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epidemiology
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Early epidemiology suggests how diseases could be ____ and ____.
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spread( human contact and bad air) , and controled (quarentine)
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in 1847 ____ determined the source of blood poisoning of women in childbirth, found handwashing and chlorine disinfecting precent disease
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Ignaz Semmelweis
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in 1854 ______ performed 1st epidemiology study of a cholera epidemic, proposed cholera was a waterborne disease
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John Snow
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method of purposely infected a person with smallpox(variloa) in controlled manner to minimize severity of infectionand also induce immunity against further infection
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variolation
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in 1796 _______ scrated cowpox on skin of boy who had milkd disease, 6 weeks later he scratched the boy with small pox but the boy developed no reaction. developed vaccination(vacca=cow)
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Edward Jenner
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in 1838 _____ suggests tiny "rod like" organisms be called vacteria ( bakterion =little rod)
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Christian Erenberg
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in 1840 _____ suggests living organisms can cause disease - implicated bacteria in disease causation
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Jacob Henle
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in 1854 __________ saw common shaped bacteria in the stool smaples of cholera patients
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Filippo Pacini
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in 1857 ____ reasoned pasteurization - heating wine to apoint where its flavor wasnt change dbut harmful microbes were killed wouldnt spoil
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Louis Pasteur
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Louis pasteur hypothesized in 1857 and proposed in 1862 that microorganisms are responsible for infectious diseases - also known as the _________
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the germ theory of disease
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______ discovered that microbes can grown without oxygen(anaerobic growth) fermentaiton by yeasts produced alcohol, microorganisms in beer and wine could be killed by heat, milk pasteurization, different microbes caused different tpes of fermentation, and developed vaccines for diseases such as rabies
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louis pasteur
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in 1865 ______ developed the practice of antisepsis, chemical disinfection of external living surfaces
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Joseph Lister
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____ developed microbiology into a science
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Robert Koch
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_____ devleoped pure culture techniques, devleoped solidifying agents and complex media, established microbial taxonomy
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Robert Koch
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a population of organisms all of which are the projeny of a single organism, key to studying microbes
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pure culture
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Koch wanted to culture pathogens so he used _____.
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meat extracts
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____ is the favored incubation temperature for most pathogens
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37' C
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agar was suggested by ______ wife of a worked in Koch's lab to be used instead of jelatin because many organisms could digest it and it melts at 37' C.
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Fannie Hesse
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_____ is a complex polysaccharide derived from seaweed. it only melts at 100'C and solidifies at 45' C, non toxic to most microbes and other forms of life, stable at sterilization temperatures, physiologically inert(only a few bacteria have enzymes that digest it)
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agar
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______ inveneted the petri dish in 1887
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RJ Petri
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pure cultures of bacteria dont change shape, realised many different types of species of bacteria
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establishment of microbial taxonomy
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in 1884 _______ developed the gram stain to distingusih between different types of bacteria that look the same
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Hans Christian Gram
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1. A specific microorganism is present in all cases of the disease
2. the organism can be obtained in pure culture outside of the host 3. the organisms when inoculated into a susceptible host causes the same symptoms 4. organisms can be isolated in pure culture from the experimentally infected host |
are known as Koch's Postulates
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Through the use of Koch's postulates Koch's lab discovered ______.
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bacertia caused Tuberculosis, Cholera, Diphtheria(Friederich Loeffer), Typhoid fever( Georg Gaffky), Gonorrhea, Pneumonia
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What did Koch's lab focus on?
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isolation, cultivation, and identification of pathogens
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Early observations of ______ were made by Dimitri Ivanowsky, Martinus Beijerinck, and Walter Reed.
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viruses
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in 1877 ____ found microorganisms in a hay infusion could survive boiling
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John tyndall
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in 1877 _______ demonstrated that heat resesitant microbes were endospores
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Ferdinand Cohn
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structure in favorable conditions germinate and form new Bacillus cells, stucture is made by bacteria
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endospore
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An extremely resistant dormant cell produced by some gram-positive bacterial species
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endospore
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______ identified the diphtheria toxin
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Emilie roux and Alexandre Yersin
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__ developed the diphtheria antitoxin
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Emil von Behring
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_______ proved that lice transmit typhus fever
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Charles Nicolle
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__________ discovered that rat fleas transmit plague
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Masaki Ogata
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___ proved that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever
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Walter Reed
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in 1910 ____ introduced an arsenic containing chemical called salvarsan to treat syphilis
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Paul Ehrlich
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in 1928 _________ discovered penicilin (first antibiotic)
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Alexander Fleming
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in 1933 ____ discovered sulfa drugs
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Gerhard Domagk
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First observed bacteria
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Leeuwenhoek
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proved living cells can arise only from other living cells
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pasteur
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confirmed the germ theory of disease
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koch
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the smallest unit of matter, cant be broken down any furhter with out losing quality of the element
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atom
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positively-charge atomic particle
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proton
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The atomic particle without an electrical charge.
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neutron
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A particle found in the negatively-charged cloud surrounding an atom
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electron
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number of ____ = number of _____
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electrons - protons
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the number of protons in an atom
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atomic number
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Atoms with the same number of _______ behave the same way chemically and are classified as " chemical elements"
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protons
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there are ___ naturally occuring elemtns, only about ___ are commonly found in living things.
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92, 26
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98% weight of humans and bacterial cells have these six elements: CHNOPS
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carbon hydrogen nitrogen oxygen phosphorus sulfur
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_____ = number of protons + neutrons
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atomic weight ( mass)
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Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
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isotope
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In electron configuration the inner shell holds ___ electrons, second shell holds ____, and the outer shell holds _____
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2, ,8, 8
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The force holding two atoms together.
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chemical bond
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bond forms between oppositely charged ions, one atom will give up its outer most electron pair to another atom
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ionic bonds
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loss of electrons = ___ charge also known as ______
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positive charge, cation
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gain of electrons = ____ charge also known as ___
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negavtive charge, anion
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formed when 2 atoms share outer shell electron pair
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covalent bonding
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stronger than ionic, in living organisms carbon almost always forms this bond, can be polar or non polar
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covalent bonds
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the electrostatic attraction between a partically negative and partically positive atom, when the positively charged end of one molecule is attractied to the negatively charged end of another molecule
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hydrogen bonds
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forms new bonds- in living orgamisms pathway is known as anablocic reaction
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synthesis reactions
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bonds are broken, in living organisms split large molecules into smaller molecules(ions/atoms) pathway is known as catbolic reaction
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decomposition reactions
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combining capacity = number of extra or missing electrons in its outermost electron shell
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valance
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formed when atoms of two or more elements interact with one another to achienve stablibity
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compound
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______ is symbolization of the atoms in a molecule
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molecular formula
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______ is determined by adding together the atomic weights of the atoms within a molecule
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molecular weight - measured in daltons
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a quantity of a substance whose weight in grams is equivalent to is molecular weight
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the mole concept
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decompositio reaction in which water is involved
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hydrolysis
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part synthesis and part decomposistion reactions
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exchange reactions
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the amount of energy needed to disrupt stable electron configuration
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activation energy
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catalysts that lower activation energy and speed up the reaction (usually proteins)
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enzymes
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in a reaction what the enzyme binds to
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substrate
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the result of a chemical reaction
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product
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Chemist divde compounds into two princicple classes: organic and inorganic molecules. describe the difference
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inorganic compounds( usually small molecules that lack carbon, H2O and NaCl - both very important for life) organic compounds (contain carbon and hydrogen and are typically complex - sugars, amino acids, polysaccharides, proteins)
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____ makes up 5-95% of every cell, the average is around 65-75%
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water
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the ______ of water makes its suitable for its role in living cells
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structural properties
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What are the important properties of water?
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1. capable of forming four hydrogen bons with nearby water molecules
2. polarity of water makes it an excellent dissolving medium or solvent 3. water molecules are reactant in chemical reactions |
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What makes water have great cohesiveness?
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need a great deal of heat to seperate water molecules to form vapor
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a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+)
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acid
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substance that dissociates into one or more positive ion(cations) plus one or more negative charged hydroxide ions(OH-)
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base
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a measure of the relative acidity (hydrogen ion concentration) in a solution
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pH
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a compound that maintains a specfic pH. compounds that keep the pH from changing drestically
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buffer
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What are the Major biological molecules ( macromolecules)?
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carbohydrates lipids proteins and nucleic acids
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a bond ofrmed by sharing electrons in the outermost shell
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covalent bond
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a bond formed by the gain or loss of electrons from the outer electron shell
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ionic bond
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a weak bond formed for example by the slight positive charge at the hydrogen end of the water moelcule reacitng with the negative end of the other molecules
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hydrogen bond
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the strongest of the three chemical bonds
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covalent bond
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an ion with a postive charge
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cation
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an ion with a negative charge
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anion
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the collective term for all decomposition reactions
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catabolism
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the collective term for all synthesis reactions
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anabolism
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a protein that lowers the activation energy required for a reaction
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enzyme
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an arrangement of atoms in an organic molecule that is responsible for most of the chemical properties ofthat molecule
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functional groups
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a common combining reaction is an exchange reaction called _______ is done by the removal of a water molecule. the reverse is called...
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dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis reaction
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sugars and starches, made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen general formula (CH2O)n
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carbohydrates
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_______ provide energy and building materials
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carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates are the sturctural formulas for _________
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monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysacchardes
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two monomers formed by dehydration sysnthesis reacion
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disaccharides
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sucrose= __+___
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glucose + fructorise
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lactose= __+__
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glucose + galactose
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10 to 100 monosaccharides joined through dehydration snthsi
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polysaccharides
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____ are nonpolar molecules = insoluble in water
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lipids
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simple lipids are known as fats or _____
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triglycerides
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Lipids contain ____ anbd ____
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glycerol and fatty acids
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3 carbons attached to three hydroxyl groups (OH)
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glycerol
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consists of long hydrocarbon chains ending in carboxyl group(-COOH) and forms an esterlinkage
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fatty acids
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________= no double bonds
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saturated fat
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______= double bonds kinks chain
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unsaturated fat
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_____ is a complex lipid
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phospholipids
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what are the components of a phospholipid?
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glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group
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the ____ give lipids a polar head(hydrophillic water loving)
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phosphate group
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fatty acids are _____
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hyrdophobic
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In water phospholipids form a bilayer= membrane polar group faving out fatty acids in ....
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true
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_____ molecule seperate fatty acid chains
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sterol
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______ are essintial for all aspects of cell structure and function
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proteins(enzymes)
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what are the building blocks of proteins?
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amino acids
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conatins at least one carboxyl group contains at least one amino group
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amino acids
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another dehyration synthesis
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peptidebonds
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unique sequence of amino acids linked together
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primary structure
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twisting and folding of polypeptide chain (helix and/or pleated sheats)
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secondary structure
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overall 3d structure- hydrogen and ionic bonds between R groups, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges
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tertiary structure
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aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains
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quartenary sturcture
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RNA and DNA are __
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polyneucleotides
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made of up sugar phosphate and a base
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nucleotide
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what is the structure of DNA?
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purines(9 member rings) pyrimidine(6member)
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Purines consist of ______ and ____
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adenine and guanine
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pyrimidine consists of _______ _________ and ______
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cytosine, thymine(DNA), and Uracil(RNA)
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Base pairing A pairs with ___ and G pairs with ____
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T and C
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_____ is a double tranded helix
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DNA
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RNA differs from DNA in being usualy _________
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single stranded
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in RNA what replaces thymine?
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uracil
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The five carbon sugar in DNA is?
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deoxyribose
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in DNA what will pair with guanine
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cytosine
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the principal energy carrying molecule in all cells is ________
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ATP
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all organisms have been divided into two categories: based on their cell structure.
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The Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic Paradigm
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____ are bacterial cells and mean before the nucleus
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prokaryotes
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____ are animal cells and mean true or good nucleus
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eukaryotes
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Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain similar organic molecules of __________
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nucleic acids proteins lipid and carbohydrates
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What are the similarities in organizational patterns of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
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compartmentation, genetic organization, metabolic organization, and protein synthesis
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Plant cells and most prokaryotic cells have a ______________.
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cell wall and a plasma membrane
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Animal cells have a ________
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plasma membrane
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The ___ is the genetic material contained in chromosomes
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DNA
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prokaryotes have usually _____ genetic material
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circular
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eukaryotes have usually ____genetic materal
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linear
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____ are the chemical reactions occuring in an organism or cell
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metabolism
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____ - RNA protein bodies participate in protein synthesis
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ribosomes
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Prokaryotic ribosomes are _______ than counterparts in eukaryotic cells
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smaller
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in the _______ there are no internal structures that are enclosed by a membrane
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prokaryotic
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in a eukaryotic cell the internal structures surronded by a membrane are __________
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mitochondria and nucleus
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________ have a nucleus
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eukaryotes
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_________ have a nucleoid
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prokaryotes
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a membrane enclosed organelle where the chromosomes are located
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nucleus
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a region in the cell where the chromosomes are located(dont have a membrane surronding the chromosomes)
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nucleiod
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membrane bound sturctures used in producing energy
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mitchondria
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membrane bound structures used by photosynthetic organisms to convert light into chemical energy
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chloroplasts
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protein and lipid synthesis and transport ; with ribosomes attached ___ , without ribosomes
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endoplasmic reticulum; rough ER, smooth ER
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protein and lipid from ER processed, sorted and packaged for transport
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golgi apparatus
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membrane enclosed sacs digestive enzymes
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lysosomes
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What are the internal structures of a eukaryotic cell that are encolsed by a membrane?
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nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome
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_______ have microcompartments often surrounded by proteins
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prokaryotes
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_______= conversion of chemical energy into cellular energy (glucose into ATP)
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cellular respiration
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in prokaryotes cellular respirtation occurs in ____________
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cytosol and cell membrane
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in eukaryotes cellular respiration occurs in _________
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mitochondria and cytosol
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_____ is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy
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photosynthesis
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in prokaryotes photosynthesis occurs in the ______
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cell membrane
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in eukaryotes photosynthesis occurs in _______
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the chloroplasts
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___ have a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules and actin
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eukaryotes
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________ have a rudimentary cytoskeleton primarily involved in cell division
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prokaryotes
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Prokaryotes have what type of flagella?
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rigid flagella
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Eukaryoties haas ______ and _______
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undulating flagella and undulating cilla
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What are the different categories of microogranisms?
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bacteria(prokaryotes) archeaea(prokaryotes) fungi(eukaryotes) unicellular algea(eukaryotes)protazoa(eukaryotes) viruses(neither prokaryotes or eukaryotes)
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single celled eukaryotes that lack cell walls and are usually motile (flagella cilia or cytoplasmic extensions)
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protazoa
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What are the two methods used to group prokaryotic via taxonomy?
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phylogenic grouping & traditional (phenotypic) grouping
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groups organisms based on their evolutionary relatedness; genomic (DNA) similarities, 16s rRNA molecules are greater than 97% identical
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phylogenic grouping
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groups organisms on the basis of phenotypic characteristics(morphology, gram-reaction, fermentation, biochemical pathways, inclusion bodies and spores) the quickest way to identify microorganisms
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traditional (phenotypic) grouping
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the shap eof individual cells as well as the shape and color of the colonies
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morphology
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whether organism is gram positive or gram negative
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gram reaction
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what sugars can be fermented by the organism as well as what products are formed from these fermentations
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fermentation
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does it have an enzyme activity; catalyst or gelatinase?
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presnece of different biochemical pathways
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The scientific naming of bacteria follows ____ ; genus first followed by a species modifier
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Linnaeus binomial system
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The unaided human eye can only see ___mm
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0.1mm
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multiple lenses that magnify from 100 to 2000 X
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compound microscope
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What are the three seperate lens systems of a compound microscope?
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condenser lens, objective lens and and ocular lens
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btwen the light source and the specimen, focuses light rays on the specimun
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condenser lens
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closest to the specimen, typical microscope have lenses of 10X, 40X, and 100X, multiple lenses assembly are used to correct for dissotrion
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objective lens
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closest to the eye, typical lens has 10X magnification
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ocular lens
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the smallest distance between two objects at which they can still be clearly distinguished from one another
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microscope's resolution
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in a typical light microscope the hightest resolution is ____
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2 micrometers
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shorter wavelenghth of light = _______ power
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higher resolving
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___ is shortest wavelength visible light
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blue light (400 nm)
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to achieve high magnification with good resolution the objective lens must be _____
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small
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refers to the size of the cone of light that enters the objective lens
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Numberical Aperture
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high magnification lenses (100X) are _________
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oil immersion objective lenses; oil between the slide and the lens prevents loss of light rays due to regraction at the interface
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read book on gram stains
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gram positive and gram negative
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used to color and isolate various stractures such as capsules endospores and flagella
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special stains
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what are the types of microscopes?
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brightfield, darkfield, phase contrast, fluorescent, electron
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used for examing live mjicroorganisms; it uses condenser that doesnt let light pass directly through the specimen into the objective, only light entering the objective is light that has been reflected off spcimen cells, cell appear bright in a dark background
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darkfield microscope
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used for examining live microorganisms; refractive index(light bending ability)of cells is slightly greater than that of the medium, makes cells appear dark in light background
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phase contrast microscope
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when illuminated by a short wave(invisible) ultraviolet light, give off visible light, flow brightly in a dark backgroup; use ultraviolet light instead of visible light, cell that make - compounds such as cholorphyll can be seen; cells can also be stained with flourescent dyes
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fluorescent microscope
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use beam of electrons instead of light(electron wavelength ~.005 nm) Note 100,000X shorter than violet light (500nm)
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electron microscope
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can visualize cellular structure, membranes DNA protein structures; magnification up to 100,000X
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transmission electron microscopes
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can visualize surface structures of cells
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scanning electron microscopes
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classified into several major phyla ; about 18 phyla of ____ are identified into 5 major groups
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bacteria
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