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208 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Microbiology
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Study of small life
The study of organisms too small to be seen clearly with the unaided human eye. |
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Prions
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Proteinaceous- infectious particles.
Self replicating protein One very unique trait is that they are devoid of nucleic acid 100x smaller that the smallest virus Cause "slow infections" (Months-years-decades) before symptoms Dementia--->spasms/trembling---->coma---->death Amyloid plaques in CNS Scrapie: fatal brain Dz in sheep. Creutzfeldt-Jakob Dz (CJD) CANT JUMP SPECIES EASILY |
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Viroids
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Viroids: "Virus like"
10x smaller than smallest plant virus Linear or Circular RNA Lack protein Coat Cause a number of plant dz's |
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Viruses
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RNA or DNA (single or Double stranded) Viruses infect all life forms
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Rickettsias & Chlamydias:
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Unicellular
Prokaryotic: lack a true nucleus or membrane bound organelles. Obligate intracellular parasites. Reproduce within a host cell |
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Bacteria And Archaea:
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unicellular. Prokaryotic
Range from Antarctic ice- steaming Geysers Most are saprophytic (live on dead organic matter) |
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saprophytic
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Live on dead organic matter
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algea:
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Unicellular photosynthetic organisms
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Fungi
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(yeast, molds, mushrooms) Nonphotosynthetic. Most are saprophytic
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Protozoa:
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Unicellular animals. Most are free living
some are symbiotic, some are parasites (malaria is a protozoa and is the #1 infection death Dz) |
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Helminths:
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Roundworms and Flatworms. Free living and parasitic
Ex. Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm) can be up to 30 ft long |
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Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus
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Binomial Nomenclature. (Every Organism is given a double name)
Scientific Name 1st name = Genus 2nd name= specific epithet (species) Capitalize genus name only. Both names are underlined or put in italics |
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What are the 7 fields of study?
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Microbial Ecology
Marine and aquatic microbiology agricultural and soil Microbiology bioremediation food and industrial microbiology biotechnology/genetic engineering medical microbiology |
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microbial ecology:
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the study of the relationship b/w microbes and the environment. (global warming?)
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Marine and Aquatic Microbiology
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Food chains and sewage treatment
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Agricultural and soil microbiology
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plant pathology, carbon and nitrogen cycles. Microbial insecticides.
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bioremediation
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using microbes to clean up pollutants
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food and industrial microbiology
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Spoilage prevention (pickling, canning, packaging) food production: Cheeses, yougurt, bread, beer and wine. (ethanol/ biodiesel fuel)
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Biotechnology? genetic Engeneering
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(Recombinant DNA) Production of Human proteins, genetic vaccines, and transgenic species (GMO's)
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Medical Microbiology
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pathology (etiology and pathogenesis), epidemiology; immunolgy
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Who invented the compound Microscope?
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Zaccharias Janssen
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Who popularized the compound microcope as well as improved It w/ a focusing device?
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Galileo Galilei
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Who improved the resolution and illumination of the Microscope?
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Robert Hooke
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Who published "Micrographia"
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Robert Hooke
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Put a piece of cork under a microscope and noticed it was made up of "cella" (Lat. for small room) This was the beginning of "cell theory" which was later developed by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
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Robert Hooke
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Developed cell theory
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Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
All living things are composed of cells |
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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Ground and mounted his own lenses.
Discovered Microorganisms Submitted a series of letters and drawings to the royal society. First descriptions of protozoa and bacteria. "Animalcules" |
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Spontaneous Generation
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Abiogenesis
The belief that life could arise spontaneously from non-living matter. |
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Van Helmont
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Receipe for the manufacture of mice
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Francesco Redi
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Demonstrated that maggots do not arise spontaneously from decaying meat
open jars filled w/meat-->maggots and flies appear closed jar w/ meat-->no maggots or flies counter argument-Fresh air needed for spontaneous generation Redi repeated the experiment covering the jars with gauze-->no maggots appeared in the gauze covered jars. |
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John Needham
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Microorganisims arise by spontaneous generation
boiled chicken and corn broth---> poured into flasks---> microorganisms appeared |
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Lazzaro Spallanzani
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Suggested that microbes probably entered Needham's solution after boiling. Spallanzani heated solution after sealing. Prolonged heating 1Hr---> No microbes appeared
Needham's reply: Too much heat destroyed the "vital force" of the nutrient fluid. Spallanzani opened the flask ---> microorganisms grew |
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Biogenesis
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Life arises from other life forms
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Rudolf Virchow
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Living Cells can arise only from preexisting living cells. Life comes from life
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Louis Pasteur
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Microorganisms are present in the air; they can contaiminate sterile solutions but air itself or nutrient fluids by themselves do not give rise to microbial life.
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fermentation studies
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Louis Pasteur
If yeast can cause changes in organic matter... perhaps microorganisms can cause dz in humans |
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Early Theories of Dz
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Supernatural Forces
Curses Astronomical Events Imbalances in the body's humors Miasmas: Foul Odors |
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In order for bacteria to replicate, bacteria need
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Iron
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Antiseptic
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Used on living tissue
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Disinfectant
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Used on non living tissue
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Attenuation
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Less Virulence
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True Antibiotic
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Non Manmade
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Germ Theory of DZ
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Infectious Diseases are caused by living microorganisms; a specific organism causes a specific Dz
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Ignaz Semelweis
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Handwashing
Required personal to wash their hands w/ chloride of lime fality Rate Ward #1 summer 9.9 rest of year 29.9 ward #2 sumer 3.9 rest............ 3.9 After hand washing WARD #1 1st year down to 3% 2nd year down to 1.27% |
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joseph Lister
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Antiseptic
Began soaking dressings in mild carbolic acid (phenol). Dramatically reduced infection and death |
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Florence Nightingale
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"the lady w/ the lamp"
Laid the foundation of professional Nursing |
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Robert Koch
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First proof that bacteria cause disease
Established procedure for showing relation between a specific microbe and a specific disease |
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Koch's Postulates
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1. Microbe must be identified in all affected animals and not in healthy animals
2. Microbe must be isolated and grown in pure culture. 3. The disease must be reproduced in experimental animals by these pure cultures. 4. the same microbe must then be recovered from the experimental animal |
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Edward Jenner
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smallpox Vaccination
Noticed that Pt's who dad recovered from cowpox (vaccinia) didn't contract smallpox. |
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Pasteur
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Attenuation studies on Rabies. Lead to a successful rabies vaccine.
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CHEMOTHERAPY
Paul Ehrlich |
"magic Bullet"
could destroy a pathogen w/o harming the infected individual. Discovery of Salvarsan ( compound 606) An arsenic compound effective against syphilis. |
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Garhard Domagk
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(1939 Nobel Prize in Medicine) Prontosil :First sulfa drug
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Alexander Fleming
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PCN
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Immunology
Elie Metchnikoff |
Phagocytosis
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Paul Ehrlich and Emil Von Behring
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Humoral Immunity
Immunity to diphtheria and tetanus resided in the cell free portion of the blood. |
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Wright and Dougles
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Opsonins
Serum Substances that aided phagocytosis. |
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Disease
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Any abnormality of body structure and/or function
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infectious Dz
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Disease caused by microorganisms
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Infection
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The invasion or colonization of the body by a pathogenic microorganism.
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morbidity
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illness
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mortality
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death
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symbiosis
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living together
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commensalism
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one organism is benefited and the other is unaffected
eg. Saprophytic bacteria on the skin |
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Mutualism
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Both organisms are benefited
E. Coli in intestinal tract |
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Parasitism
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One organism is benefited while the other suffers
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Transient Microbiota/Flora
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Present only for a short time, w/o causing Dz
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Normal/ resident microbiota/ Flora
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Microorganism that colonize the body w/o causing dz
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Microbial antagonism/ Competitive exclusion
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Prevents overgrowth of invading organism/pathogens
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Opportunists / Opportunistic Pathogen
Read up on... |
Organisms which are potentially disease causing but don't cause Dz in healthy individuals.
May cause Dz in: Immune compromised or suppressed individuals Antibiotic therapy, Ectopic sites |
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Pathogen:
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Dz causing organisms
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symptom
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subjective
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sign
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objective. Can be observed and measured
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syndrome
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a group of sympotoms/ signs that characterized a specific condition/dz
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communicable Dz
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Any dz spread from one host to another
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Contagious
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easily spread from one person to another
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Noncommunicable
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Organisms that normally inhabit the body but only occasionally produce Dz
Organism resides outide the body and is introduced by mechanical means. e.g. cost. tetani |
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Incidence of Dz
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(Morbidity rate) Number of new cases over a given time period. Usually given as # of cases / 100,000
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Prevalence
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Prevalence of a disease is the total numver of cases of a particular disease during a given period of time. Both New and already exsiting cases
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Sporadic
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A few isolated cases in widespread areas (poses no great threat to the overall population) e.g rabies
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Endemic
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Dz is constantly present in a population or geographic area.
cold |
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Epidemic
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Many people acquire the Dz in a short period of time.
influenza, measles |
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pandemic
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worldwide epidimic
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Acute Dz
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Develops rapidly but lasts only a short time
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Chronic Dz
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Develops more slowly, body reactions less severe but are continuous or recurrent for long periods of time
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subacute Disease
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Intermediate between acute and chronic
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antibody
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protein produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances
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antibiotic
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medicines that fight bacterial infections
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latent Dz
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The causative agent remains inactive but can become active producing Dz
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Herd Immunity
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Many individuals w/in a population are immune. Prevents rapid spread of the Dz
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Local infection
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Organism limited to relative small area
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systemic infection
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organism and or products are spread throughout the body
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Focal infection
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local infection that spreads to another specific part of the body
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sepsis
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an inflammatory condition arising from the spread of microbes and/or their toxins form the focus of infection
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septicemia
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presence of pathogenic organisms multiplying in the blood stream leading to sepsis.
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Bacteremia
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Presence of bacteria in the blood
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Toxemia
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toxins in the blood
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Viremia
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Viruses in the blood
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Primary infection
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Acute infection caused by the initial infective agent (you'd only use this term if there is a secondary infection)
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secondary infections
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Usually caused by an opportunist after primary infection has weakened the host
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Subclinical/Asymptomatic infection
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No apparent signs or symptoms of Dz
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Pattern or infection/ progress of DZ
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A. period of incubation-interval b/w infection and onset of sx. varies according to: host resistence, # or organisms, degree of virulence, rate of growth (generation time)
B. Prodromal period-1st sx of Dz appear. Usually general sx c.Period of Acme or illness- acute stage of Dz. More specific signs of Dz appear. D. Period of Decline: signs and sx subside. Often preceded by a crisis period, followed by recovery. E. Period of convalescence: individual regains strength, body's systems return to normal All this is in Acute Dz only |
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What makes a Pathogen a pathogen?
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To cause Dz an organism must;
1)Find a suitable and susceptible host and multiply within 2) Have a portal of entry: E.g mucouse membranes skin, Parenteral route (directly into deep tissue) trans placental 3) enter in sufficient numbers (LD50) (ID50) Lethal/ Infectious 4)Be able to attach to host tissue (adherence) 5) Must cause harm |
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Evasiveness and invasiveness:
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The ability of an organism to evade destruction by the host, penetrate tissues and cause structural damage.
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Bacterial structures contribute to evasiveness and invasiveness how?
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capsule: inhibits phagocytosis and complement
Some cell surface components also inhibit phagocytosis e.g M protein on cell surfaces and fimbriae. other cell wall components can contribute to virulanece Fimbriae and Opa causes cell wall to take in the pathogen waxy lipd: cell wall component that prevents digestion by phagocytes Enzymes and ANTICHEMOTACTIC FACTORS (attracts immune cell to site of infection) Antigenic Variation Invasins: Surface protein that rearranges actin filaments of the cytoskeleton leading to movement of the pathogen into the host cell |
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Mechanisms of Virulence/damage to host cells
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A.Interferes w/ host cell metabolism (uses host cell nutrients)
Siderophores B.Toxigenicity a.Endotoxins exotoxins b.Membrane- disrupting toxins 1) Leukocidins: kill WBC's 2) Hemolysin/ Steptolysin: Lyses RBCs c. Superatigens C. Organisms may produce various invasive or toxic enzymes D. Mechanical Damage: Irritation and Inflammation E. Blockage of vessels or airways F. Cytopathic effects |
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Virulence
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Degree of pathogenicity (How bad a bug)
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Siderophores
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Binds host cells iron ---> attaches to receptors on the bacterial surface----> takes into the bacterium.
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Toxigenicity
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ability or a microorganism to produce toxins
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exotoxins
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released from the organism into the surrounding environment.
Mostly gram positive bacteria. Organisms themselves need not be present for Dz to occur |
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Endotoxins
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Part of the cell wall of Gram Negative bacteria (Lipopolysaccharide (lipid A)
Released after death of the organism endotoxic/septic shock: Phagocytes release tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ---> Damage to capillaries--->drop in blood ---> shock |
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Membrane-disrupting toxins:
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Leukocidins: kill WBC's
Hemolysin/streptolysin : lyses RBCs |
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Superantigens
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cause excessive secretion of cytokines by T-cells.
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Organisms may produce various invasive or toxic enymes
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1) coagulase: clots blood. Organisms are "walled off" from host defenses.
2) kinases: streptokinase & Staphlokinase : Dissolves clots formed by the host to isolate the infection 3) Hyaluronidase: Dissolves substance that hold certain cells together 4)Collagenase: Breaks down collagne 5)IgA protease: Destroys IgA antibodies |
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Mechanical Damage: Irritation and Inflammation
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Autoimmune Dz: Antibodies formed against an organism cross react w/ host cell tissue.
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Blockage of Vessels or airways:
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Thrombosis (blood clot) Embolism or blockage or airways
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cytopathic
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(virus infections)
Inclusion bodies: granules in the cytoplasm of infected cells "Balloon cells" due to fluid accumulation "giant cells" fusion of cell membranes (syncytia) <---(cells together) transformation: conversion of normal cells to malignat ones-loss of contact inhibition (test) cell lysis /bursting of cells----> release of more virons (fully infected virus) |
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syncytia
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cells together
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spread of infection
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Be transmited (find a new host or reservoir) or dies
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Portals of exit
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respiratory tract
GI tract Genital tract Uninary Tract skin and wounds: direct contact or fomites Biting insects contaiminated needles breast milk |
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Mechanisms to spread survival of pathogen
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Resistance: spores and cysts, dehydration resistant substances
Shed in large numbers Reproduce in Vector |
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Reservoirs
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1) Human Reservoirs / carriers
carrier states: Asympotmatic carriers : infected but show no sx I ncubation carriers: spread the infections agent during its incubation period Convalescent Carriers: Recurperating pts Chronic carriers: harbor the infectious agent long after recovery Animal reservoirs: (Zoonosis = animal Dz which can be transmitted to humans) Wild and domestic animals Nonliving reservoirs: soil and water |
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Direct contact
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Handshakeing, kissing, sex, transfusion, transplant
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indirect contact
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Fomite: any nonliving object involved in the spread of infection
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Vehicle transmission
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transmission by some medium, such as food, water, airborne transmission (more than one meter from reservoir to host), body fluids, drugs or iv fluids
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vectors
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animals that carry pathogens from on host to another.
arthropod vectors = insect vectors |
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mechanical transmission /vectors
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insect carries pathogen o feet of other body part
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biological transmission vectors
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insect bites infected person---> pathogens reproduce in the vector---> transmitted to humans by bite or feces while biting
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Nosocomial infections
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Hospital acciquired infections
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Emerging infectious Dz
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Diseases that are new, increasing in incidence, or showing a potential to increase in the near future.
Epidemiology (Among or upon the people) The study of diseases w/ in a population |
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Descriptive epidemiology
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concerned w/ collecting data and organizing it by time, place and person
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analytical epidemiology
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analyzing data on : causative agents, sources of infection, modes of transmission (contact tracing)
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morbidity
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Numbers infected
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Experimental Epidemiology
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test hypothesis such as the effectiveness of a drug
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Notifiable Dz
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Physicians are required by law to report Dz to U.S. Public Health Services.
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case reporting
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nation wide:Center for Disease control and prevention (CDC) in Atlanta Georgia
MMWR: Morbidity and MOrtality Weekly report Worldwide: World Health Organization |
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The chemistry of living and nonliving things obey the same
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laws
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vitalism
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living organisms have special properties ( a life source) and are governed by different laws than those that govern inanimate object
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mechanism
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a living organism is a "machine" subject the same physical and chemical laws as inanimate objects "All matter (living and nonliving) is made of atoms"
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electrons
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(with a negative charge) orbit the nucleus
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Nucleus
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protons have a positive charge and neurtrons are uncharged
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atomic number
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total number of protrons
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atomic weight/ mass
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total number of protons and neurtons
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neutral atom
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number of electrons = number of protons
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ion
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a positively or negatively charged atom
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isotopes
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different forms of the same element. Nuclei contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
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element
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matter composed of only one kind of atom. Can't be broken down further by ordinary chemical means.
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Molecule:
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A collection of atoms held together by chemical bonds
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A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that still has the
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properties of the substance. May be composed of the same or different atoms
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compound
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a substance consisting of two or more atoms of different elements and having properties different from the elements that compose it.
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Compounds vs. Mixtures
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Mixtures can be separated by nonchemical means
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solid
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particles (atoms and molecules) are strongly bound to one another. The only motion is vibration and rotation. Maintains a fixed volume and shape
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liquid
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particles can flow over one another. Fixed vol. but takes the shape of its container
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gas
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particles far apart. No fixed vol. or shape
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Electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus in regions called
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electron shells or energy levels.
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electron shells are composed of
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orbitals
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the _________ the energy level of the electron the electrons the farther away it orbits from the nucleus
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higher
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1st shell: maximum of ___ electrons
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2
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2nd shell: maximum of _____ electons
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8
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atoms try to fill up their outermost shell by forming
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chemical bonds
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electrons are transferred from one atom to another
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ionic bond
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covalent bond
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electrons are shared by two atoms
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electronegativity
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measure of the attraction of an atom for an electron
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polar covalent bond:
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Formed b/w two atoms w/ different electronegativities
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nonpolar covalent bond:
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the shared pair of electrons are attracted equally by two atoms
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hydrogen bonds
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weak attraction b/w two atoms (one of which is hydrogen) bearing partial electrical charges
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Chemical reactions
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occur when chemical bonds are formed or broken. Collisions b/w molecules may result in formation of new componds
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synthesis reaction
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occur when atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new, larger molecules
A + B ----> AB |
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anabolic
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is the synthesis of molecules in a cell
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energonic
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reactions absorb energy
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Decomposition reactions
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occur when a molecule is split into smaller molecules, ions, or atoms
AB---->A + B |
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catabolism
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is the decomposition reactions in a cell
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exergonic
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reactions release enery
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exchange reactions:
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are part synthesis and part decomposition
AB + CD ----> AD + BC |
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Reversible Reactions
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can go readily in either direction. Each direction may need special conditions A + B <------> AB
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water
Cohesion and adhesion |
cohesion- holding together of like substances.
Hydrogen bond hold H2O molecules tightly together ------> surface tension. Adhesion: Holding together of different substances ------> capillary action. |
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water
high specific heat |
can absorb a lot of heat energy w/out its temp increasing to much, and must lose a lot of heat to lower its temp.
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water
Thermal conductivity |
heat rapidly spreads. No hot spots
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Waters boiling point is high or low?
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high
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Water High heat of vaporization
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Prevents excess loss of water in lakes and ponds
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Water high freezing point
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water is less dense when frozen. Water expands upon freezing and floats. Ice is a good insulator. Preserves life in lakes and ponds
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Water
A good solvent |
Dissolves more different substances than any other known liquid.
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name 7 unique characteristics about water
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1. cohesion and adhesion
2.High specific heat 3.Thermal conductivity 4. high boiling point 5. high heat of vaporization 6. high freezing point 7. good solvent |
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pH
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measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
H+ = hydrogen ion OH- = hydroxide ion |
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Acid
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increases the hydrogen ion concentration
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base
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decreases the hydrogen ion concentration
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buffer
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minimizes changes in pH
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salt:
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Dissociates in water into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH-
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acidosis
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pH drops below 7.3. Can cause coma Below 6.9 is usually fatal
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alkalosis
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pH goes above 7.5
can cause convulsions, cessation of respiration (apnea) pH 7.8 causes tetany. |
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Biochemistry
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living organisms are composed of only about 26 elements. The most abundant chemical elements in living organisms are:
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, NItrogen |
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Organic compounds
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carbon containing compounds
Carbon has 4e in its outer most shell and can easily bond w/ other carbon atoms as well as other elements |
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Macromolecules (Macro = Large)
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Large Organic Polymers:
1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Protiens 4. Nucleic acids |
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Polymerization reactions
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Link two or more small molecules to form large molecules w/ repeating structural units. Macromolecules are polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules
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the smaller molecules (in Polymerization) are called
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monomers
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Dehydration or condensation synthesis
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Molecules are covalently linked, resulting in the formation of a molecule of water
One monomer loses an (OH) and the other loses a (H) requires energy and enzymes |
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hydrolysis
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hydro= water
lysis=loosening Breaks covalent bonds between monomers by the addition of h2o H bonds to one monomer and OH binds to the adjacent monomer |
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carbohydrates
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are important for structure and as energy sources. Consist of C, H, and O w / the formula (CH2O)n
monosaccharides are simple sugars w/ 3 to 7 carbon atoms |
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disaccharides are formed when two
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monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration synthesis
Disaccharides can be broken down by hydrolysis. |
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polysaccharides
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consist of tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis
Starch, glycogen, dextran and cellulose are polymers of glucose that are covalently bonded differently chitin is a polymer of two sugars repeating many times |
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chitin is
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a polymer of two sugars repeating many times
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lipids
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the primary components of cell Membranes.
Consist of C, H, and O. Are polar and insoluable in water. |
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simple lipids
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called fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis
unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds in the fatty acids. |
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complex lipids:
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contain C,H, and O + P, N or S membranes are made of
(find answer) |
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steroids
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structurally different from other lipids.
four carbon ring structure Many hormones are made of steroids |
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Cholesterol is the most abundant
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steroid
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Proteins
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are essential in cell structure and function. Enzymes are proteins that speed chemical reactions.
Flagella are made of proteins. Some bacterial toxins are proteins. |
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Enzymes are
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proteins
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Proteins consist of subunits called
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amino acids
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