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231 Cards in this Set

  • Front
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Mutualism?
Both members benefit from their interaction
Commensalism?
One member benefits with out significantly affecting the other
Parasitism?
A parasite derives benefit from its host while harming it, though some hosts sustain only slight damage.
Normal MIcrobiota?
AKA Normal Flora

-microbes that colonize the surfaces of the body without normally causing disease
Resident Microbiota?
"long term dwellers"

Commensal- feed on excreted cellular wastes and dead cells without causing harm
Transient Microbiota?
remain in the body for only a few hours, days, or months before disappearing
Acquisition of microbiota?
established through the birth canal and the first breath and also during the first months of life
How microbiota become opportunistic pathogens? (3)
1. Introduction of a member of the normal microbiota into an unusual site in the body
2. Immune Suppression
3. Changes in the normal microbiota- Microbial Antagonisim
Microbial Antagonism?
When normal microbiota use nutrients, take up space, and release toxic waste products, all of which make it less likely that arriving pathogens can compete well enough to become established and produce disease.
Animal Reservoirs?
Pathogens that normally infect domesticated or wild animals can also infect humans
Zoonoses?
Diseases that spread naturally from their usual animal hosts to humans
Human Carriers?
Humans with active diseases are reservoirs of infection for others

Humans with no obvious with no obvious symptoms before or after a disease may also be infective

Some carriers incubate the pathogen and develop the disease, while others never become sick but still remain a source of infection
Nonliving Reservoirs?
Examples are soil, water, and food that are contaminated
Exposure through contamination?
refers to the mere presence of microbes in or on the body.
Exposure through Infection?
successful invasion of the body by a pathogen
Entry through skin?
pathogens can enter through natural openings such as hair follicles and sweat glands.

Additionally, pathogens can enter through abrasions, cuts, bites, scrapes, stab wounds, and surgeries.
Entry through mucous membranes?
Mucous membranes are the major portal of entry for pathogens.

Mucous Membranes line all body cavities that are open to the outside. These include: respiratory, gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts, as well as the conjunctiva
Entry through placenta?
This is rare, but pathogens in 2% of pregnancies cross the placenta and causing spontaneous abortion, birth defects, or premature births.
Parenteral route?
not a portal of entry BUT a means by which the portals of entry can be circumvented.

Ex: Nail, thorn, or needle
Adhesion Factor?
specialized structures or attachment proteins that pathogens use to accomplish adhesion.
Adaptive Immunity?
specific, 3rd immune branch, has to be activated & turned off, contains memory & can be activated & more efficient.
What is Self-Tolerance?
prevents the body from mounting an immune response against itself.
Lymphocytes are ___________________? What 2 things are produced in Red Bone Marrow in the stem cells?
- non-granulocytes
1. B cells
2. T cells
B Cells?
mature in bone marrow & are participants in humoral immunity (b-cell directly interacts w/ bug or virus)
T cells?
mature in the thymus, in cell mediated immunity (requires cell to cell communication in order to engage in a pathogen)
Humoral response has _____________________, which have _______________ and _______________.
1. B cell descendants
2. Antibody production
3. Extracellular pathogens
Cell mediated response has _____________ which has ______________.
1. T cell descendants
2. Intracellular pathogens
Lymphatic system?
an organ system of the body, its purpose is to filter out interstitial fluid (which is fluid b/t tissues & organs) and turns into lymph and then lymph nodes containing lymphocytes.
What do Lymphoid organs have?
Primary and Secondary
Primary Lymphoid organs?
contain red bone marrow & thymus, it's where B and T cells reside for maturation.
Secondary Lymphoid organs? (4) Describe the regions and provide examples where they're found.
contain (4):
1. Lymph Nodes- (4 regions) = cortex (contain B lymph), medulla, germinal center (contain WBC which engage microbes in lymphatic vessels)
2. Spleen (it's job is to filter bacteria out of the blood)
3. Tonsils
4. Lymphatic Tissues- "MALT" (Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue)...which is areas of lymph tissue that ward off infection. Examples: vagina, memory gland, tonsils and pirate patches)
Antigens?
turn on adaptive branch, they're anything that isn;t YOU (like a virus/bacteria) so it activates/responses to it.
What do Epitopes within Antigens do?
engage to TLR to activate immune system.
What are the 3 types of Antigens?
1. Exogenous
2. Endogenous
3. Autoantigens
Exogenous?
immune cells engage external in the body. (includes toxins and other secretions of microbial walls, membranes, flagella, and pili)
Endogenous?
inside the cell, it's like an intracellular parasite & replicates in the cell. (protozoa, fungi, bacteria, viruses)
Autoantigens?
"you"- molecules/receptors expresses on your cells which is an auto immune disease. (body attacks itself)
B cell receptor (Immunoglobulin)? What all does it contain?
in shape of "Y", type of Immunoglobin and has 4 polypeptide chains while the Antigen binds to 2 sites.
1. Heavy (longer) & Light chains= 2 of each
2. Transmembrane & Variable Regions
3. Antigen-Binding Sites
4. Plasma Cells
Heavy/Light chains are?
connected by black bars called Disulfide bonds.
Transmembrane & Variable Regions?
when cells are created and receptors are made and undergo's a "randomized process".
Antigen-Binding sites?
are areas where antigens from pathogens bind to receptors, and are made of heavy/light chains.
Plasma cells?
when the receptor engages on an organism and becomes an activated plasma cell, it secretes antibodies which recognize an organism (called humoral immunity)
Describe an Antibodies structure.
it's similar to BCR's (B cell receptor) shape but they're secreted & lack bulk of transmembrane portions of BCR's.
Antibodies contain what 2 regions in their structure?
1. Fab region
2. Fc region
Fab region of an antibody?
it's a fragment and antigen-binding region.
Fc region of an antibody?
2 heavy chains, it forms fragments that is crystallizable.
What are the 5 functions of Antibodies?
1. Neutralization
2. Opsonization
3. Oxidative killing
4. Agglutination
5. Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity (ADCC)
Neutralization?
antigen body types bind to surface preventing infection.
Opsonization?
antibodies coat surface of antigen & recruit phagocytic WBC's & trigger phagocytosis in which destroys organism.
Oxidative Killing?
when antibodies catalyze the production of hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and other potent oxidants that kill bacteria.
Agglutination?
antibodies bind to 1 or more bugs and form clumps which traps the bugs and can be phagocytized.
ADCC?
specialized lymphocyte (natural killer lymphocyte) which triggers through ADCC, antibodies recruit to surface and cause extracellular killing. (enzymes that are secreted destroy micro-organism)
What are the 4 antibody classes?
1. IgM
2. IgG
3. IgA
4. IgE
5. IgD
IgM?
is a pentamer (10), can act as BCr; act in complement activation, neutralization, and agglutination. On serum and B cell surface & biggest in size. (5-10%)
IgG?
is a monomer (2), it has a complement activation, neutralization, opsonization, production of hydrogen peroxide, agglutination, and ADCC; crosses placenta to protect fetus. (IgG CANT be secreted but it does EVERYTHING, most numerous in blood- 80%, located on serum and mast cell surfaces)
IgA?
is a monomer (2) & dimer (4), it has neutralization, agglutination, and dimer is secretory antibody.It's located on mucous membranes: tears, saliva, mucus and in breast milk. (10-15%)
IgE?
is a monomer (2), triggers release of antiparasitic molecules from esoinphils and of histamines from basophils and mast cells (allergic reactions). Located on serum and B cell surfaces. (<1%) ***Basically works against parasite infections***
IgD?
is a monomer (2), it's function is unknown but could act as a BCR. Located on B cell surface. (<0.05%)
T lymphocytes have what is called a _______, in which each T cell has about half a million copies of it.
T cell receptor.
T cell receptor?
forms an "I", has 2 "heavy" glycoprotein chains and requires MHC presentation of an Epitope.
Explain what a T cell receptor does. What is the percentage of lymphocytes in blood?
- Starts in bone marrow and moves to mature in the thymus. Then kills viruses & abnormal cells.
- There is about 70-85% of lymphocytes in blood.
What are the 3 types of T Lymphocytes?
1. Cytotoxic T cell (Tc; CD8)
2. Helper T cells (Th; CD4)
3. Regulatory T cells (Tr)
Cytotoxic T cell (Tc; CD8)?
is direct killing--- like infected or virus cells & cancerous cells
Helper T cells (Th; CD4)? What are it's functions?
- regulates responses of immune system upon presence of pathogen.
- Assist in immune response regulation & Cytokine secretion (which are soluble protein messengers)
Cytokine secretions have 2 types. Describe them.
1. Type 1= Cytotoxic T cell & macrophage activation
2. Type 2= B Cell activation
Regulatory T cells (Tr)?
"suppressor T-cells"- secretes anti-inflammatory cytokines & helps turn off immune system which suppresses Adaptive Immune Responses.
What is Clonal Deletion?
regulation of T cells, stops production of T cells that act against auto-antigens.
In Clonal Deletion, T cells undergo what 2 fates?
1. Body Epitopes are presented by Thymus cells via MHC (present antigen to T cell) protein
2. Auto-antigen (molecules on our cells) recognition results in Apoptosis (which is further clonal deletion).
In Clonal Deletion, B cells undergo what 2 fates?
1. Screening in the bone marrow
2. Auto-antigen recognition results in inactivation or receptor alteration.
What are Cytokines?
regulatory proteins that act as intercellular messages when released by certain body cells, including those of kidney, skin and immunity.
What are the 5 types of Cytokines?
1. Interleukins (IL-2, IL-4, IL-12)
2. Interferons (alpha, beta, gamma)
3. Growth Factors
4. Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)
5. Chemokines
IL-2?
Sources: type 1 helper T cell, cytotoxic T cell
Target: Tc cell
Action: Cloning of Tc cell
IL-4?
Sources: type 2 helper cell
Target: B cell
Action: B cell differentiates into plasma cell
IL-12?
Sources: Dendritic cell
Target: Helper T cell
Action: Th cell differentiates into Th1 cell
Gamma Interferon (IFN-y)?
Source: Th1 cell
Target: Macrophage
Action: Increases phagocytosis

(type 2 interferon, "pro", which helps activate & release T helper cells which release cytokines)
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)?
Source: Macrophages, T cells
Target: Body tissues
Action: Triggers inflammation or Apoptosis
2 roles of Adaptive Immune Response Preparations?
1. Major Histocompatibility Complex
2. Antigen Processing
Major Histocompatibility Complex contains?
1. Epitope presentation to T cells
2. MHC classes (2)
MHC classes (2)?
1. Class 1- all nucleated cells (not erythrocytes AKA RBC's)
2. Class 2- antigen presenting cells (like B cells, Macrophages, and Dendritic cells) are experienced and are the only antigen presenting cells.
2 types of Antigen Processing?
1. Endogenous Antigen
2. Exogenous Antigen
Endogenous Antigen?
is internally produces polypeptides, has intracellular bacteria/viruses, Epitope presentation on MHC 1 by infected nucleated cells.
Exogenous Antigen?
is derived from internalized pathogens, Epitope presentation on MHC 2 by Anitgen Presenting cells.
In Cell-Mediated Immune Responses, T cell activation/cloning containing Lymph nodes have what 4 functions?
1. Antigen Presentation
2. Helper T cell differentiation
3. Clonal Expansion
4. Self-Stimulation
What does Antigen presentation do?
has Epitope presentation on MHC 1 by APC (virus-infected), MHC 1 binds TCR of Tc cell (immunological Synapse), CD8 from Tc cell binds MHC 1 stabilizing synapse.
What does Helper T cell differentiation do?
has Epitope presentation on MHC 2 by APC to TCR of Th cell, APC secretes IL-12 converting Th cell into Th1 class, and Th1 secretes IL-2 assisting in Tc cell activation.
What does Clonal Expansion do?
it activates Tc cell and secretes IL-2 which activates more Tc cells to reproduce.
What does Self-Stimulation do?
the daughter Tc cells further secrete IL-2 and express IL-2 receptors, then APC's & Th-1 cells are no longer needed; and activated Tc cells leave lymph nodes.
Cytotoxic T cells kill their targets through one of what 2 pathways?
1. Perforin-Granzyme pathway
2. CD95 Pathway
Perforin-Granzyme Pathway?
synthesis of special killing proteins, used by Tc cells and NK cells, has 2 key protein cytokines (Perforin/Granzyme) and undergo's Apoptosis ("self-suicide")
CD95 Pathway?
mediated through a glycoprotein found on the bodies of cells, used by Tc cells, CD95 and CD95L "ligand" bind together to trigger Apoptosis and result in "self-suicide".
Memory T cells?
persists on lymphoid tissues for months/years, awaiting subsequent contact w/ antigenic determinant matching its TCR...at which point produces cytotoxic T cells.
T cell regulation?
T cells require several signals from an antigen-presenting cell to activate. If T cells don't receive these signals in specific sequence they will not respond. Which will "shut down" as a precaution against autoimmune responses.
T-dependent Humoral Immunity?
Adaptive immune response resulting in antibody production that requires the action of specific helper T cell (Th2).
- Antigen presentation (Th Activation & Cloning)---> Epitope presentation on MHC 2 by APC and MHC 2 bind TCR of Th cell (CD4 stabilizes synapse), second signal activates Th cell (CD80 or 86 from APC binds to CD28 on Th cell) and then activated Th cell divides producing clones.
T-Independent Humoral Immunity?
Adaptive immune response resulting in antibody production following cross-linking of BCR's on numerous B cells & lacking involvement of Helper T cells.
Like previously stated, what are the 4 steps of T-Dependent humoral immunity?
1. Antigen presentation for Th activation
2. Differentiation of Helper T cells into Th2 cells
3. Clonal selection of B cell
4. Activation of B cell
What does Th Cell Differentiation do?
IL-4 signals Th cell differentiation into Th2 class cells.
What does B cell Clonal Selection do?
B cell phagocytizes, processes, and presents Epitpe via MHC 2 on surface.
What does B cell activation do?
Th2 cell binds MHC2--- Epitope complex via TCR (CD$ stabilizes), Th2 cells expresses CD40 which binds CD40L on B cell (second signal), its activated B cell produces clones and then the clones become Plasma cells and Memory B cells.
What are Memory B cells?
long-lived cells w/ BCR's complementary to specific Epitope that triggers their production.
Memory B cells have what 3 responses?
1. Primary response
2. Secondary response
3. Tetanus toxoid
Tetanus toxoid?
deactivated tetanus toxin
- even more effective than primary and secondary???
Primary Response?
small amounts of antibodies are produced, may take days before sufficient antibodies are made to completely eliminate the toxoid from the body.
Seconday Response?
much faster and effective than a primary response.
2 types of Acquired Immunity?
1. Natural (Active/Passive)
2. Artificial (Active/Passive)
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity?
"Natural Illness" = occurs when the body responds to exposure to pathogens & environmental antigens by mounting specific immune responses (influenza-viruses/food antigens) during course of daily life. The body is naturally/actively engaged in its own protection. Once an immune response occurs, the response will be rapid/powerful providing body's complete protection.
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity?
"Breast Milk"= occurs when a fetus/newborn/child receives antibodies across the placenta or w/ in breast milk.
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity?
"Vaccination"= occurs when body receives antigens by injection, as w/ vaccinations & mounts specific immune response.
Artifically Acquired Passive Immunity?
"Antisera, Antitoxins..shots given w/ antibodies and receive protection"= treatment in which patient receives via injection preformed antibodies in antitoxins or antisera which can destroy fast-acting & potentially fatal antigens such as rattlesnake venom.
What CD4 T cell regulates cytotoxic T cell activity?
TH1 Cell
What CD4 T cell regulates B cell activity?
Th2 Cell
What is the molecule located on the surface of bacteria/viruses that aide in adherence & attachment?
ligands
What is the coating of pathogen surfaces w/ antibodies stimulating phagocytosis?
opsonization
What is the Antibody class that is most common in bodily secretions (passive immunity)?
IgA
What is the complement activation pathway which utilizes microbe recognition via complementary protein C3b?
alternative
What is the # of new & existing cases of disease in the area?
prevalance
What is a vicous substance in which traps bacteria produced by goblets?
mucus
What is the 1st step in Phagocytosis?
Chemotaxis
What is the molecule that presents endogenous antigen by presenting cells to T cells?
MHC 1
Form of vector transmission that involves spread of pathogens by arthropods and infect body parts?
mechanical
CD8 T cell that directly kills infected cells?
Tc cell
Molecule that presents exogenous antigen by presenting cells to T cells?
MHC 2
What is an extracellular enzyme that induces formation of blood clots?
coagulase
Pentamer of 5 antibody monomers; activates complement & inflammation?
IgM
Response to infection resulting in slow removal of antigen along w/ memory B cell production?
primary
Cytokines used to signal b/t leukocytes to coordinate proper immune responses?
interleukins
Microbiota that can become harmful (cause infection) under unique circumstances?
opportunistic pathogen
Ability of organism to cause disease?
pathogenicity
Response to infection resulting in immediate activation memory B cells & differentiation into plasma cells?
secondary
Cytokines produced by macrophages & T cells which activate inflammation & kill tumor cells?
Tumor necrosis factors
Bradykinin & _______________ cause vasodilation of body's smallest arteries.
histamine
Relationship which one member benefits while incurring damage?
parasitic
Relationship in which both benefit?
synergistic
Tears contain these enzymes which destroys bacterial cell walls.
Lysozyme
This phagocytic granulocyte is the most versatile and most numerous among the leukocytes.
Neutrophils
These cellular receptors recognize, bind, and elicit responses to PAMPs.
Toll- like receptors
Upon activation this complement protein initiates the recruitment of proteins C6-C9 & assembles MAC complexes to destroy microbes.
C5A or C5.
Tuberculosis bacteria in the lungs represents commensalism. T/F
FALSE
Coagulase is a bacterial enzyme that triggers blood clot formation. T/F
TRUE
During the prodromal period there are no signs or symptoms of disease.
FALSE
Airborne transmission is a form of vehicle transmission.
TRUE
Ligands?
Surface lipoprotein and glycoprotein molecules found on viruses and many bacteria
What are ligands called on bacteria?
adhesins
What are ligands called on Viruses?
Attachment proteins
what is biofilm?
bacterial pathogens that do not attach directly to host cells but instead interact with each other to form a sticky web of bacteria and polysaccharides that adhere to hosts.

ex: dental plaque
Symptoms?
subjective characteristics of manifestation that we can not see
Sign?
objective manifestation that we can see
Syndrome?
a group of symptoms and signs that collectively characterizes a particular disease or abnormal condition.
what is asymptomatic/subclinical?
the infections that go unnoticed because they have no symptoms.
Germ theory of Disease?
disease is caused by infections of pathogenic microorganisms
Unculturable pathogen? (1 of 5 exception to Koch's postulates)
Some pathogens can not be cultured in a laboratory

ex: Mycobacterium leprae
Cause complexity... combination of pathogens? (2 of 5 exception to Koch's postulates)
some diseases are caused by a combination of pathogens which leads to the pathogen alone being avirulent but when accompanied by another pathogen or appropriate cofactor, disease can result.
Ethics? (3 of 5 exception to Koch's postulates)
Ethical considerations prevent applying Koch's postulates to diseases and pathogens that occur in humans only.
Generalized symptoms? (4 of 5 exceptions to Koch's postulates)
It is not possible to establish a single cause for such infectious diseases as pneumonia, meningitits, and hepatitis because the names of these diseases refer to conditions that can be caused by more than one pathogen.
Ignored Pathogens? (5 of 5 exceptions to Koch's postulates)
Gastric ulcers were thought to be caused by excessive production of stomach acid in response to stress when in fact, the majority of ulcers are caused by the overlooked bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Hyaluronidase and collagenase?
Extracellular enzymes:

digests hyaluronic acid

breaks down collagen
Coagulase?
Extracellular enzyme:

causes blood proteins to clot
kinases?
Extracellular enzyme:

digest blood clots
Exotoxins? (3)
** secreted by cell
1. Cytotoxin
2. Neurotoxin
3. Enterotoxin
Cytotoxin?
kill hosts cells or affect their function
Neurotoxin?
interfere with nerve cell function
Enterotoxin?
affect the cells lining the GI tract
EndoToxin? (1)
** NOT secreted by cell

Lipid A- lipid portion of the LPS
--> cause fever, inflammation, diarrhea, hemerrhaging, shock, and blood coagulation
Antiphagocytic factors? (2)
1. Capsule
2. Antiphagocytic Chemicals
Antiphagocytic Chemicals? (2)
1. M Protein
2. Leukocidins
Stages of Infectious Diseases? (5)
1.Incubation Period
2. Prodromal Period
3. Illness
4. Decline
5. Convalescence
Portals of exit?
Identical to portals of entries and also through secretions and excretions
Mode of transmission through Contact? (3)
1. Direct Contact (persont to person)
2. Indirect Contact ( spread through fomites)
3. Droplet (exhaling, coughing, sneezing)
----> Pathogens that travel more than 1 meter in respiratory droplets it is considered to be airborne transmission
Vehicle Transmission? (3)
1. Airborne-spread of pathogens farther than 1 meter
2. Waterborne- water acts as a reservoir as wells as a vehicle transmission--->important in spread if many GI diseases
3. Foodborne- pathogens in and on food that are inadequately processed, undercooked, or poorly refridgerated
Vector Transmission? (2)
1. Biological-transmit pathogens AND serve as hosts for the multiplication during some point in the life cycle (bug bite)

2. Mechanical-passively carry pathogens to new hosts on their feet or other body parts ,"",,"",make physical contact (picnic story)
4 ways to classify diseases?
1. Body Systems affected
2. Taxonomic Category
3. Longevity and severity (4 sub categories)
4. Transmissibility (3 sub categories)
4 sub categories of Longevity and severity?
1. Acute- develops rapidly and lasts a short time
2. Subacute- durations and severities that lie btwn acute and chronic
3. Chronic- develop slowly and aare continual and current
4. Latent- pathogens remain inactive for a long time before coming active
3 subcategories of Transmissibility?
1. Communicable- infectious disease comes from another infected host directly or indirectly
2. Contagious- the fact that Communicable disease is spread easily between hosts
3. Noncommunicable- arise outside of hosts or from normal microbiota (tooth decay)
Frequency of disease? (2)
1. Incidence- # of new cases in a given area or population during a given period of time

2. Prevelance- TOTAL # of new or old cases in a given area or population in a given period of time
Frequency and geographic distribution? (3)
1. Endemic- a disease that normally occurrs continually at a relatively stable incidence within a population or geographical area.
2. Epidemic- when a disease occurs at a greater frequency than is usual for an area or population
3. Pandemic- when an epidemic occurs simultaneously on more than one continent.
Descriptive Epidemiology Studies?
the careful tabulation of data concerning a disease including location and time of disease as well as information about the patients.
Analytical Epidemiology Studies?
investigates the disease in detail to determine the probable cause, mode of transmission, and possible means of prevention.
Experimental Epidemiology Studies?
involves testing a hypothesis concerning the cause of disease.
Nosocomial Infections?
acquired by patients or health care workers while in the health care facility
Exogenous?
pathogens acquired by the healthcare environment
Endogenous?
arise from normal microbiota within the pt that become pathogenic because of factors within the healthcare setting
Iatrogenic?
from modern medical procedures such as catheters
3 influencing factors to nosocomial infections?
1. Exposure to pathogens
2. Immune system integrity
3. Transmission
What are the first two lines of defense?
1. Skin/Mucous Membranes
2. Internal Defenses (Cells, Bloodborne chemicals, etc)
What are the first 2 lines of defense called collectively?
Innate Immunity
What is the 3rd line of defense?
Adaptive Immunity
The skin is an organ with the greatest ____________.
surface area
The two layers of the skin are called the _________ and the ______.
Epidermis
Dermis
What is the top layer of skin that acts as a barrter to the lower part of the skin?
The epidermis
What defense mechanisms does the epidermis contain? (3)
1. Physical Barrier to pathogens
2. Multiple layers of dead skin cells on epidermis sloughs off frequently leading to the removal of pathogens.
3. Dendritic Cells
What are dendritic cells?
phagocytic cells that contain finger-like processes around surrounding cells, like a continuous network

intercepts invaders
What defense mechanisms to the dermis have? (2)
-Collagen fibers for strength and flexibility
- Blood vessels in dermis allow for cell delivery from the blood
What is an alternative name for antimicrobial peptides? What is the name if these peptides come from sweat glands?
1. Defensins
2. Dermicidins (sweat glands)
What are antimicrobial peptides?
positively charged chains of 25-50 amino acids that act against pathogens.
What do antimicrobial peptides from sweat glands (dermicidins) act against?
Many:
-Gram + Bacteria
-Gram - Bacteria
-Fungi
What is Lysozyme and where can you find it?
-Enzyme that destroys cell walls of bacteria by cleaving bonds between sugar subunits of their cell wall.
-sweat glands
What is sebum?
-Oily substance secreted by oil glands that keeps skin pliable.
-Lowers ph in skin to 5, which is inhibitory for many pathogens
Bacteria who lack cell walls usually die from _____________ or ___________.
-osmotic pressure
-phagocytosis
Do the mucous membranes and skin attack specifically or nonspecifically?
nonspecifically
What are mucous membranes? examples
Covers all body cavities that are open to outside of environment.

-respiratory and gi tract; vagina; urinary
What are the 2 distinct layers of mucous membranes?
1. Epithelium
2. Deeper connective tissue layer
Most mucous membranes are ______ packed to prevent ________ entry.
-Tightly
-Pathogen
Cells of mucous membranes are continuously replaced by via ___________ of the ____ cells.
-cytokinesis
-stem
Generative cells that are capable of dividing to form various types of daughter cells?
Stem Cells
Dendritic cells can be found in the ____ and ________________ .
-Skin
-Mucous Membranes
What cells are in the trachea?
-Goblet cells
-Ciliated columnar cells
What are goblet cells?
secrete a sticky substance that traps bacteria and other pathogens
what are ciliated columnar cells?
These cells use their cilia to propel mucous and trapped particles or pathogens up from the lungs.
Nasal mucus contains ________.
lysozyme
What does the lacrimal apparatus provide in terms for defense from pathogens?
Tears
What do tears contain that destroys pathogens?
Lysozyme
What is microbial antagonism?
Normal microbiota keep pathogens from establishing themselves in the human body by a variety of methods.

-pH, nutrient inhibition, destruction
What are advantages of normal microbiota in the body?
-give us nutrients
-make immunity more efficient
What are the components of plasma?
electrolytes
dissolved gases
nutrients
variety of proteins
What are formed elements?
cell and cell fragments suspended in the plasma
WHAT ARE THE THREE TYPES OF FORMED ELEMENTS?
1. Erythrocytes
2. Platelets
3. Leukocytes
_________ are the most numerous and carry CO2 and O2 in the blood.
Erythrocytes
Platelets are also called __________ and are involved in ___________________.
megakaryocytes
blood clotting
_________________ are also called WBCs, and are involved in defending the body against invaders.
Leukocytes
2 Classes of Leukocytes?
granulocytes and agranulocytes
What are granulocytes?
A type of leukocyte with large granules in their cytoplasm.
The 3 granulocytes? What color do they stain?
- Basophils (blue)
-Eosinophils (red)
-Neutrophils (lilac)
Neutophils are also known as ______________.
polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Neutrophils and Eosinophils _________ pathogens, and exit the blood via ___________, or emigration (squeezing b/w blood capillaries).
-phagocytize
-diapedesis
The two types of agranulocytes? small or large?
-lymphocytes (small)
-monocytes (large)
monocytes who leave the blood and mature are called ____________, which are _________________.
-macrophages
-phagocytic cells
6 Steps of Phagocytosis
1. Chemotaxis
2. Adherence
3. Ingestion
4. maturation
5. Killing
6. Elimination
Chemotatic Factors include ________, __________, and __________.
-defensins
-peptides
-chemokines
Chemokines?
chemicals released by leukocytes that are already at site of infection.
Opsonization is performed by proteins called?
Opsonins
After phagocytes adhere to pathogens, the pseudopodia-encompassed microbe is adhered to a food vesicle called a ___________.
Phagosome
When a lysosome adds digestive chemicals to a phagosome, it is called a?
-phagolysosome