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Prokaryotes cells comparisson in size to eukaryotes

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Prokaryotes cells are small in comparisson to eukaryotes

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ribosome for eukaryotes is

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80s

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Bacteria shapes
Cocci
Bacillus
Vibrio
Spirillum

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spherical
Rod-shaped
Curved rod
Helical

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Spirillum:

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Large rigid cell body with distinct spiral shape. Elongated cells with flagellar tufts at both poles. Gram-negative, aerobic.

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Spirillum habitat

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Stagnant water rich in organic matter.

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Human diseases caused by spirillum

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Ulcers (H. pylori),
Rat bite fever (S. minus)

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Spirochete

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Small, flexible, helical-shaped cell.
Two axial filaments (endoflagella) wrapped around the cell, all enclosed in a flexible external sheath. “Gram-negative”, aerobic.

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Spirochete:habitat

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Sediments and surfaces of ponds and lakes.

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Spirochete human diseases

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Syphilis (T. pallidum),
Lyme disease (B. burgdorferi), Legionellosis (L. pneumophila).

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cocci due to is spherical natura doesnt have a lot of

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a lot of restriction as to how it associates another cocci adjacent.

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due to the nature of baccili, they associate

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tale to tale forming chains (strep)

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Staphylococci form

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very dense structure. cluster of grapes

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motility provided by flagella to get

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away from immune response, to find nutrients. Flagella made up of flagellin

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Monotrichous
Amphitrichous:
Lophotrichous
Peritrichous:

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Single polar flagella
tuft at each end
Two or more at one pole
distributed over entire cell

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Flagella characteristics

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helical filaments of flagellin.
attached to a protein hook.
anchored to the wall and membrane by the basal body
antigenic determinants.

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How to bacteria move?

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he bacteria senses the concentration of things it is interested in like sugar..they swim to where the highest concentration and as it is moving towards the target stops and samples the concentration and compares it to the last measurement it took. If it is determined that is going in the right direction, the chances of tumbling will descrease and it will continue moving in a straight line

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Endoflagella (axial filaments)

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Specific to spirochetes
Anchored at ends of cell
Wrapped around cell within outer sheath
Rotation causes cell to move

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Fimbrae characteristics

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to solid or semisolid surfaces, this is important for processes like biofilm formation

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Pili is used to

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transfer DNA

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Gram-Stain characteristics

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Empirical method for differentiating bacteria into two groups based on the physical/chemical properties of their cell walls

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Gram stain procedure and results for gram + and gram -

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1)Crystal violet
2)Gram iodine
3)Decolorizer (alcohol or acetone)
4)Safranin red
Gram + ends up being blue, gram negative

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Gram + wall structure

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Gram positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer that contains teichoic and lipoteichoic acids. Wall teichoic acids link to peptidoglycan. Lipoteichoic acids link to the plasma membrane. Teichoic acids provide antigenic specificity.

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Gram - cell wall structure

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O-polysaccharide Lipid A
outer membrane:
contains lipopolysaccharide, phospholipids, and proteins
periplasmic space
thin peptidoglycan layer

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Outer membrane characterisitcs

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lipopolysaccharide, phospholipids and proteins (porins)
Periplasmic space: enzymes, binding proteins,

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capsule (polysaccharide) helps

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the organisms to bypass identification of immune system

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lysesyme

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is an enzyme that can destroy peptidoglycan. Gram - are not susceptible because they have the outer layer

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Penicillin, interfere with

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peniciline binding proteins which are involved in the assemby of peptidoglycan layer and theres high susceptiblitu for gram +

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Archaea

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Lack peptidoglycan cell wall –Has wall of pseudomurein –Most test Gram (-)

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Mycobacteria

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–Structure similar to Gram (-), but with mycolic acids
–Acid-fast stain instead of Gram stain

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Mycoplasma

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No peptidoglycan cell wall
–Has plasma membrane with sterols –Problematic Gram stain

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Stain Characteristics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)

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MTB stains neither Gram-positive nor Gram-negative (weak Gram-positive "ghosts"). M species are impermeable to common dyes, but will retain carbol fuchsin (pink dye)
during acid treatment (“acid-fast”).

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MTB Stain method:

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stain with carbol fuchsin, heat
• decolorize with HCl / ethanol
• counterstain with methylene blue • acid-fast bacilli appear pink

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The MTB cell wall...

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is unique among procaryotes
• contains peptidoglycan, but otherwise composed of complex lipids
• is over 60% lipid, the major component mycolic acid (unique, alpha-branched lipids) • is a major virulence determinant

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The high lipid concentration in the cell wall makes MTB...

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resistant to macrophage oxidation
• resistant to osmotic lysis via complement deposition
• impermeable to stains and dyes
• resistant to many antibiotics
• resistant to acid and alkaline compounds

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All elements for ATP production

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in the cytoplasmic membrane there are all the oxidation proteins for ATP production. The electron transport take reduced equivalents and oxidized and pumped protons out of cell, this creeates and imbalance concentration of protons, higher in the outside, lower in the inside..this is the proton motor pump. The ATPase synthase takes advantage of this imbalance and permits the protons drift back inside and ATP is formed

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Understanding peptidoglycan synthesis is essential in medicine because

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these reactions are unique to bacterial cells and can be inhibited with drugs that have little to no effect on the host: penicillins, cephalosporins, other β-lactams, vancomycin, etc.

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General structure of the peptidoglycan component of the cell wal

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The peptidoglycan forms a meshlike layer around the cell.
The peptidoglycan mesh consists of a polysaccharide polymer that is cross-linked by peptide bonds.
Peptides are cross-linked through a peptide bond between the terminal D-alanine from one chain and a lysine from another chain.

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Diaminopimelic acid* is directly linked to

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the terminal alanine of another chain to cross-link the peptidoglycan.

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Lipoprotein anchors

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the outer membrane to the peptidoglycan.

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The peptidoglycan is built from

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prefabricated units that contain a pentapeptide attached to the MurNAc. The pentapeptide consists of a terminal D-alanine-D-alanine unit that is required for cross-linking the peptidoglycan, and is the target for action of β-lactam and vancomycin antibiotics

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The cross-linking reaction is

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a transpeptidation. One peptide bond (produced inside the cell) is traded for another (outside the cell)
with the release of D-alanine. The enzymes that catalyze the reaction
are called D-alanine, D-alanine transpeptidase-carboxypeptidases.
They are called penicillin-binding proteins, being the targets of β-lactam antibiotics.

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Teichoic acids are phosphodiester polymers of modified ribitol (A), or glycerol (B) in the cell wall of

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Gram-positive bacteria.

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Teichoic acids nature of the modification (e.g., sugars, amino acids) can define

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the serotype of the bacterium.

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Lipoteichoic acid is anchored
in the cytoplasmic membrane by

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covalently attached fatty acid; wall teichoic acid is covalently attached to the peptidoglycan.

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Teichoic acid synthesis is similar to that for

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peptidoglycan.

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LPS of the Gram-Negative Cell Envelope

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A. Segment of the polymer showing arrangement of the three major constituents.
B. Typical O antigen repeat unit (from S. typhimurium). The O antigen distinguishes serotypes (strains)
of a bacterial species.
C. Polysaccharide core.
D. Structure of lipid A of S. typhimurium.
Lipid A is responsible for the endotoxin activity of LPS.

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he O antigen is the most outer part of the bacteria and it determines

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erotype( varies in strains) in the middle theres the polysaccharide core which varies across species. Lipid A is constant across bacteria

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Production of two daughter cells requires

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growth/extension of cell wall components, followed by septum (cross-wall) formation (midcell from opposite sides), with cleavage at the center.
Growth zones determine cell arrangement.