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270 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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study of individuals and groups in organizations
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organizational behavior
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simplified views of reality that attempt to explain real-world phenomena
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models
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presumed causes that influence dependent variables
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independent variables
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outcomes of practical value and interest
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dependent variables
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3 Reasons why scientific thinking is important to OB researchers and scholars?
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1. Process of data collection is controlled and systematic
2. Proposed explanations are carefully tested 3. Only explanations that can be scientifically verified are accepted |
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seeks ways to meet the needs of different management situations
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contingency approach
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Highly publicized scandals involving unethical and illegal business practices prompt concerns for ethical behavior in the workplace; there is growing intolerance for breaches of public faith by organizations and those who run them
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commitment to ethical behavior
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a dynamic and complex environment poses continuous challenges; sustained success is earned through knowledge, experience, and commitments of people as valuable human assets of organizations
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importance of human capital
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traditional hierarchical structures are proving incapable of handling new environmental pressures and demands; they are being replaced by flexible structures and participatory work settings that fully value human capital
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demise of command-and-control
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organizations today are less vertical and more horizontal in focus; driven by complex environments and customer demands, work is increasingly team based with a focus on peer contributions
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emphasis on teamwork
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as computers penetrate all aspects of the workplace, implications for workflows, work arrangements, and organizational systems and processes are far-reaching
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pervasive influence of information technology
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the new generation of workers is less tolerant of hierarchy, more informal, and less concerned about status; organizations are paying more attention to helping members balance work responsibilities and personal affairs
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respect for new workforce expectations
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the new realities of a global economy find employers using more "offshoring" and "outsourcing" of jobs; more individuals are now working as independent contractors rather than as traditional full-time employees
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changing careers
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collections of people working together to achieve a common purpose
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organizations
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guides organizations to operate in ways that outperform competitors
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strategy
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transform human and material resource inputs into finished goods and services
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open systems
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people and groups with an interest or "stake" in the performance of the organization
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stakeholders
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a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization
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organizational culture
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describes how people differ in age, race, ethnicity, gender, physical ability, and sexual orientation
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workforce diversity
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refers to pluralism and respect for diversity in the workplace
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multiculturalism
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the degree to which an organization's culture respects and values diversity
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inclusivity
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responsible for supporting the work efforts of other people
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managers
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one who helps others achieve high levels of both performance and satisfaction
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effective manager
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the quantity and quality of work produced
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task performance
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a positive feeling about one's work and work setting
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job satisfaction
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4 Functions of Management:
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1. Planning
2. Leading 3. Organizing 4. Controlling |
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defining goals, setting specific performance objectives, and identifying the actions needed to achieve them
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planning
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creating work structures and systems, and arranging resources to accomplish goals and objectives
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organizing
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instilling enthusiasm by communicating with others, motivating them to work hard, and maintaining good interpersonal relations
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leading
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ensuring that things go well by monitoring performance and taking corrective action as necessary
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controlling
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10 Managerial Roles:
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1. Figurehead
2. Leader 3. Liaison 4. Entrepreneur 5. Disturbance handler 6. Resource allocator 7. Negotiator 8. Monitor 9. Disseminator 10. Spokesperson |
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working directly with other people, hosting and attending official ceremonies
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figurehead
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creating enthusiasm and serving people's needs
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leader
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maintaining contacts with important people and groups
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liaison
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exchanging information with other people, seeking relevant information
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monitor
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sharing it with insiders
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disseminator
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sharing it with outsiders
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spokesperson
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making decisions that affect other people, seeking problems to solve and opportunities to explore
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entrepreneur
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helping to resolve conflicts
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disturbance handler
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allocating resources to various uses
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resource allocator
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negotiating with other parties
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negotiator
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3 Categories of Managerial Skills?
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1. Technical
2. Human 3. Conceptual |
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an ability to perform specialized tasks
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technical skill
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the ability to work well with other people
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human skill
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the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships effectively
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emotional intelligence
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the ability to analyze and solve complex problems
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conceptual skill
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doesn't subscribe to any ethical principles, making decisions and acting in any situation to simply take the best personal advantage
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immoral manager
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an enriched awareness that causes one to consistently behave with ethical consciousness
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ethics mindfulness
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5 Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence:
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1. Self-awareness
2. Self-regulation 3. Motivation 4. Empathy 5. Social skill |
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ability to understand your own moods and emotions
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self-awareness
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ability to think before acting and to control disruptive impulses
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self-regulation
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ability to work hard and persevere
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motivation
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ability to understand the emotions of others
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empathy
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ability to gain rapport with others and build good relationships
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social skill
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an endurance change in behavior that results from experience
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learning
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continuous learning from everyday experiences
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lifelong learning
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the process of acquiring knowledge and using information to adapt successfully to changing circumstances
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organizational learning
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a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and hypotheses that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena
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theory
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involves four steps: the research question or problem, hypotheses generation or formulation, the research design, and data gathering, analysis, and interpretation
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scientific method
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a measure used to describe a real-world phenomenon
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variable
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a tentative explanation about the relationship between two or more variables
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hypothesis
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the even or occurrence expressed in a hypothesis that indicates what the researcher is interested in explaining
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dependent variable
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the event or occurrence that is presumed by a hypothesis to affect one or more other events or occurrences as dependent variables
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independent variable
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an event or occurrence that provides the linkage through which an independent variable is presumed to affect a dependent variable
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intervening variable
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an event or occurrence that, when systematically varied, changes the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable
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moderator variable
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the degree of confidence one can have in the results of a research study
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validity
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the consistency and stability of a score from a measurement scale
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reliability
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assumption that changes in the independent variable has caused change in the dependent variable
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causality
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an overall plan or strategy for conducting research to test a hypothesis
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research design
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4 Popular Research Designs:
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1. Laboratory experiments
2. Field experiments 3. Case studies 4. Field surveys |
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conducted in an artificial setting in which the researcher intervenes and manipulates one or more independent variables in a highly controlled situation
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laboratory experiment
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a research study that is conducted in a realistic setting, whereby the researcher intervenes and manipulates one or more independent variables and controls the situation as carefully as the situation permits
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field experiment
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an in-depth analysis of one or a small number of settings
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case study
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a research design that relies on the use of some form of questionnaire for the primary purpose of describing and/or predicting some phenomenon
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field survey
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4 Common Data-Gathering Approaches:
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1. Interviews
2. Observation 3. Questionnaires 4. Nonreactive measures |
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involves face-to-face, telephone, or computer-assisted interactions to ask respondents questions of interest
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interview
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involves watching an event, object, or person and recording what is seen
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observation
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ask respondents for their opinions, attitudes, perceptions, and/or descriptions of work-related matters
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questionnaires
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used to obtain data without disturbing the setting
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nonreactive measures
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can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes
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values
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parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groups
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value sources
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reflect a person's preferences concerning the "ends" to be achieved
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terminal values
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reflect a person's beliefs about the means for achieving desired ends
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instrumental values
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6 Value Categories of Allport:
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1. Theoretical
2. Economic 3. Aesthetic 4. Social 5. Political 6. Religious |
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interest in the discovery of truth through reasoning and systematic thinking
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theoretical
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interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of wealth
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economic
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interest in beauty, form, and artistic harmony
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aesthetic
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interest in people and love as a human relationship
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social
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interest in gaining power and influencing other people
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political
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interest in unity and in understanding the cosmos as a whole
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religious
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religious, social, aesthetic, political, theoretical, economic
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ministers
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economic, theoretical, political, religious, aesthetic, social
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purchasing executives
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theoretical, political, economic, aesthetic, religious, social values
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industrial scientists
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4 Value Categories of Maglino:
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1. Achievement
2. Helping and concern for others 3. Honesty 4. Fairness |
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getting things done and working hard to accomplish difficult things in life
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achievement
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being concerned for other people and with helping others
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helping and concern for others
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telling the truth and doing what you feel is right
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honesty
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being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned
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fairness
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occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own
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value congruence
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9 Most Popular Values:
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1. Recognition for competence and accomplishments
2. Respect and dignity 3. Personal choice and freedom 4. Involvement at work 5. Pride in one's work 6. Lifestyle quality 7. Financial security 8. Self-development 9. Health and wellness |
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the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society
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culture
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5 Dimensions of Hofstede's National Culture:
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1. Power distance
2. Uncertainty avoidance 3. Individualism-collectivism 4. Masculinity-femininity 5. Long-term/short-term orientation |
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the willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among its members
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power distance
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the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainty and risk in everyday life
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uncertainty avoidance
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the tendency of a culture's members to emphasize individual self-interests or group relationships
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individualism-collectivism
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the degree to which a society values assertiveness or relationships
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masculinity-femininity
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the degree to which a culture emphasizes long-term or short-term thinking
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long-term/short-term orientation
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reflects the degree to which people are likely to respect hierarchy and rank in organizations
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power distance
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reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer working as individuals or working together in groups
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individualism-collectivism
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reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus unstructured organizational situations
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uncertainty avoidance
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reflects the degree to which organizations emphasize competition and assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity and concerns for relationships
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masculinity-femininity
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reflects the degree to which people and organizations adopt long-term or short-term performance horizons
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long-term/short-term orientation
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U.S. Culture on Individualism-Collectivism?
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Highly individualistic culture
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U.S. Culture on Long-term/short-term orientation?
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Short-term oriented
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U.S. Culture on Power Distance?
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Low power distance
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U.S. Culture on Masculinity-Femininity?
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Slightly Masculine culture
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U.S. Culture on Uncertainty avoidance?
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Slightly low uncertainty avoidance
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represents the overall profile, or combination of characteristics, that captures the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others
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personality
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systematic models of ways in which personality develops across time
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developmental approaches
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the ways in which an individual integrates and organizes social traits, values and motives, personal conceptions, and emotional adjustment
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personality dynamics
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view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings
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self-concept
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2 Crucial Aspects of the Self-Concept:
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1. Self-esteem
2. Self-efficacy |
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a belief about one's own worth based on an overall self-evaluation
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self-esteem
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it is an individual's belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task
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self-efficacy
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Big Five Personality Traits:
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1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Emotional stability 5. Openness to experience |
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outgoing, sociable, assertive
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extraversion
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good-natured, trusting, cooperative
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agreeableness
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responsible, dependable, persistent
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conscientiousness
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unworried, secure, relaxed
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emotional stability
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imaginative, curious, broad-minded
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openness to experience
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surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings
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social traits
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involves getting and organizing data for use
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information gathering
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prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in gathering information; they would rather work with known facts that look for possibilities
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sensation-type individuals
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prefer the "big picture"; they like solving new problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts
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intuitive-type individuals
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oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to other people, they try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements
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feeling-type individuals
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use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions
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thinking-type individuals
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When these two dimensions (information gathering and evaluation) are combined, four basic problem-solving styles result:
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1. Sensation-feeling
2. Intuitive-feeling 3. Sensation-thinking 4. Intuitive-thinking |
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represent the way individuals tend to think about their social and physical setting as well as their major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues
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personal conception traits
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3 Personal Conception Traits:
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1. Locus of Control
2. Authoritarianism/Dogmatism 3. Machiavellianism |
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the extent to which a person feels able to control his or her own life and is concerned with a person's internal-external orientation
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locus of control
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How can locus of control be used by management to improve employee performance?
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Internals tend to do better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative
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tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority
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authoritarianism
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leads a person to see the world as a threatening place and to regard authority as absolute
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dogmatism
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How can dogmatism be used by management to improve employee performance?
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Superiors who possess dogmatism tend to be rigid and closed
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How can Machiavellianism be used by management to improve employee performance?
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A low Mach would tend to be much more strongly guided by ethical considerations and would be less likely to lie or cheat or to get away with lying or cheating
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reflects a person's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situational factors
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self-monitoring
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measure how much an individual experiences emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts
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emotional adjustment traits
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characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism
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Type A orientations
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characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events
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Type B orientations
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tension from extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities
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stress
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things that cause stress
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stressors
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things that arise at work to create stress
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work stressors
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7 Common Work Stressors:
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1. Task demands
2. Role ambiguities 3. Role conflicts 4. Ethical dilemmas 5. Interpersonal problems 6. Career developments 7. Physical setting |
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being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little
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task demands
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not knowing what one is expected to do or how work performance is evaluated
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role ambiguities
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feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly conflicting, performance expectations
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role conflicts
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being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values
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ethical dilemmas
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experiencing bad relationships or working with others with whom one does not get along
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interpersonal problems
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moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck on a plateau
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career developments
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being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other unpleasant working conditions
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physical setting
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things that arise in our personal lives to create stress
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life stressors
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3 Common Life Stressors:
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1. Family events
2. Economic difficulties 3. Personal affairs |
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has a positive impact on both attitudes and performance
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constructive stress
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has a negative impact on both attitudes and performance
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destructive stress
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shows itself as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job because of stressful working conditions
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job burnout
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involves minimizing the potential for stress to occur
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stress prevention
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takes an active approach to dealing with stress that is influencing behavior
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stress management
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involves maintaining physical and mental health to better deal with stress when it occurs
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personal wellness
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provide help for employees who are experiencing stressful personal problems
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employee assistance programs
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differences based on gender, race and ethnicity, age, and able-bodiedness
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workforce diversity
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occurs when one thinks of an individual belonging to a group or category, and the characteristics commonly associated with the group or category are assigned to the individual in question
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stereotyping
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background variables that help shape what a person becomes over time
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demographic characteristics
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a set of remedial actions designed to compensate for proven discrimination or correct for statistical imbalances in the labor force
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affirmative action
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What have researchers found regarding the differences between the genders in terms of their job performance?
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Women are reported to be more conforming and to have lower expectations of success than do men. And women's absenteeism rates tend to be higher than those of men.
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represents a person's capability of learning something
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aptitude
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reflects a person's existing capacity to perform the various tasks needed for a given job
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ability
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the process through which people receive, organize, and interpret information from their environment
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perception
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Describe the factors influencing the perceptual process.
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A person's past experiences, needs or motives, personality, and values.
The physical, social, and organizational context. Characteristics of the perceived person, object, or event. |
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A bright red sports car stands out from a group of gray sedans; whispering or shouting stands out from ordinary conversation.
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figure-ground separation
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4 Stages of Information-Processing:
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1. Attention and Selection
2. Organization 3. Interpretation 4. Retrieval |
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lets in only a tiny proportion of all the information available
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selective screening
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cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience
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schemas
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contains information about a person's own appearance, behavior, and personality
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self schema
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refer to the way individuals sort others into categories, such as types or groups, in terms of similar perceived features
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person schemas
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an abstract set of features commonly associated with members of that category
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prototypes
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a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation
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script schema
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combine schemas built around persons and events
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person-in-situation schemas
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6 Common Perceptual Distortions:
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1. Stereotypes or Prototypes
2. Halo Effects 3. Selective Perception 4. Projection 5. Contrast Effects 6. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies |
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What can managers do to reduce stereotypes?
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Recognize that an increasingly diverse workforce can be a truly competitive advantage
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occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the person or situation
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halo effect
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What can managers do to reduce the halo effect?
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It is the manager's job to try to get true impressions rather than allowing halo effects to result in biased and erroneous evaluations
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the tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with existing beliefs, values, and needs
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selective perception
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What can managers do to reduce selective perception?
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Managers should be aware of this characteristic and test whether or not situations, events, or individuals are being selectively perceived. The easiest way to do this is to gather additional opinions from other people.
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the assignment of personal attributes to other individuals
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projection
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What can managers do to reduce projection?
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Projection can be controlled through a high degree of self-awareness and empathy
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occur when an individual's characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered, who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
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contrast effects
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What can managers do to reduce the contrast effect?
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Managers and employers need to be aware of the possible perceptual distortion the contrast effect may create in many work settings
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the tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one has expected to find
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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What can managers do to reduce self-fulfilling prophecy?
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Managers can adopt positive and optimistic approaches toward all people at work
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a person's systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others
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impression management
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the attempt to understand the cause of an event, assess responsibility for outcomes of the event, and assess the personal qualities of the people involved
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attribution theory
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considers how consistent a person's behavior is across different situations
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distinctiveness
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takes into account how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the same way
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consensus
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concerns whether an individual responds the same way across time
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consistency
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the tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors in evaluating someone else's behavior
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fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but accept personal responsibility for performance success
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self-serving bias
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What can managers do to reduce the common biases or errors made with the attribution theory?
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Employees and managers alike can be taught attributional realignment to help deal with such misattributions
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theory uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior through observing and imitating others by means of perception and attribution
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social learning
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the administration of a consequence as a result of behavior
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reinforcement
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a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior
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classical conditioning
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something that incites action
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stimulus
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the process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or "operating" on, its consequences
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operant conditioning
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the observation that behavior resulting in a pleasing outcome is likely to be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated
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law of effect
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the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior
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organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)
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4 Common OB Mod Strategies:
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1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement 3. Punishment 4. Extinction |
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the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings
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positive reinforcement
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Ex: A manager nods to a subordinate to express approval after she makes a useful comment during a sales meeting
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positive reinforcement
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the view that for a reward to have maximum reinforcing value, it must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited
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law of contingent reinforcement
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How should the reward be delivered when using positive reinforcement?
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A reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited
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states that the more immediate the delivery of a reward after the occurrence of a desirable behavior, the greater the reinforcing effect on behavior
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law of immediate reinforcement
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the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior
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shaping
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a reinforcement schedule that administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs
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continuous reinforcement
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a reinforcement schedule that rewards behavior only periodically
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intermittent reinforcement
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the withdrawal of negative consequences, which tends to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in a similar setting; it is also known as avoidance
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negative reinforcement
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Ex: A manager regularly nags a worker about his poor performance and then stops nagging when the worker does not fall behind one day
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negative reinforcement
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How should the reward be delivered and scheduled when using negative reinforcement?
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A reward must be delivered and scheduled when desirable behavior occurs
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the administration of negative consequences that tend to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings
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punishment
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the withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior
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extinction
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Ex: Manager assigns a tardy worker to an unpleasant job, such as cleaning the restrooms
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punishment
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Ex: Manager instructs co-workers to stop covering for employee
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extinction
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the person's belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation
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self-efficacy
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refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work
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motivation
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2 Categories of Motivation Theories:
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1. Content
2. Process |
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profile different needs that may motivate individual behavior
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content theories
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examine the thought processes that motivate individual behavior
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process theories
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offers a pyramid of physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory
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esteem and self-actualization
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higher-order needs
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physiological, safety, and social
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lower-order needs
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2 Variables of Hierarchy of Needs Theory:
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1. Higher-order needs
2. Lower-order needs |
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4 Needs Theories of Motivation:
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1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
2. ERG Theory 3. Acquired Needs Theory 4. Two-Factor Theory |
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identifies existence, relatedness, and growth needs
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ERG Theory
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desires for physiological and material well-being
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existence needs
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desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships
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relatedness needs
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desires for continued personal growth and development
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growth needs
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3 Variables of ERG Theory:
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1. Existence Needs
2. Relatedness Needs 3. Growth Needs |
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the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks
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need for achievement (nAch)
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the desire for friendly and warm relations with others
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need for affiliation (nAff)
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the desire to control others and influence their behavior
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need for power (nPower)
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3 Variables of Acquired Needs Theory:
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1. Need for achievement
2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power |
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identifies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction
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Herzberg's two-factor theory
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in the job context are sources of job dissatisfaction
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hygiene factors
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in the job content are sources of job satisfaction
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motivator factors
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2 Variables of Two-Factor Theory:
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1. Hygiene factors
2. Motivator factors |
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What have research studies concluded about Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory?
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There is no consistent evidence that the satisfaction of a need at one level decreases its importance and increases the importance of the next-higher need
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Why would Herzberg say it is important to recognize hygiene and motivator factors as separate categories?
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Taking action to improve a hygiene factor, will not make people satisfied with their work; it will only prevent them from being dissatisfied on these matters
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posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others
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equity theory
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What causes an individual to be motivated?
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How the recipient perceives the reward that will determine actual motivational outcomes
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How can inequity be resolved or reduced?
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Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the workplace
Communicate clear evaluations of any rewards given Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward is based |
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an issue of how fair and equitable people view workplace practices
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organizational justice
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the degree to which rules are always properly followed to implement policies
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procedural justice
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the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy
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distributive justice
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the degree to which the people are treated with dignity and respect in decisions affecting them
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interactional justice
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argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort/performance relationships and work outcomes
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Vroom's expectancy theory
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the probability that work effort will be followed by performance accomplishment
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expectancy
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the probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes
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instrumentality
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the value to the individual of various work outcomes
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valence
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Why is goal setting important in influencing an employee's motivation?
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Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones
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How can managers effectively use what we know about goals and the goal-setting process to positively influence motivation?
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Use difficult, specific goals along with task feedback, while making sure people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them, making sure the goals are accepted and there is commitment to them
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a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate
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management by objectives
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What are the managerial implications regarding the motivation theories?
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Managers should also be prepared to actively support workers' efforts to achieve the agreed-upon goals
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