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80 Cards in this Set
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cohort study
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a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations. For example, a study of the occupational history of the class of 1970 in which questionaires were sent every five years would be a cohort stud. see chapter 4(longitudinal study, panel study, and trend study)
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correlation
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An empirical relationship between two variables such (a) changes in one are associated with changes in the other or (b) particular attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributesof the other. Thus, for example, we say that education and income are correlated in that higher levels of education are asociated with higher level of income. Correlation in and of itself does not constitute a causal reltionship between two variables, but it is one criterion of causality
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cross-sectional study
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A study based on observations representing a single point in time.
-> Contrasting with a longitudinal study |
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hypothesis
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A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition; more generally, an expectation about nature of things derived from a theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in real world if the theory is correct.
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longitudianl study
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A study design involving the collection of data at different points in time, as contrasted with cross-sectional study
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idiographic
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explains specific case fully
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nomothetic
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tries to explain an an impact with a few causal factors
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Quantitative data
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numerical
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qualitative data
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not numerical
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three purposes of research
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exploration, description and explanation
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Exploration
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is the attempt to develop an initial, rough understanding of some phenomenon
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description
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is the precise measurement and reporting of the characteristics of some population or and phenomenon under study . (answer the question of " what is so")
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explanation
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is the discovery and reporting of relationships among different aspects of phenomenon under study (answer the question " why")
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causation two factors
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time order
spurious relationship |
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that are three basic criteria for establishing causation in nomothetic `analysis
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1) the variables must be empirically associated or correlated
2) the causal variable must occur earlier in time then the variable and this said to effect of the different variable 3)The observed effect cannot be explained as the effect of a different variable |
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spurious relationship
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by coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused by some third variable. for example, there is a positive relationship between the number of firetrucks responding to a fire and the amount of damage done
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units of analysis
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are people or things whose characteristics social researchers observe, describe and explain. Typically, the units of analysis in social research is the individual person, but it may also be a social group, a formal organization, a social interaction, a social artifact, or some other phenomenon such as lifestyle or a type of social interaction.
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ecological fallacy
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involves conclusions drawn from the analysis of groups ( corporations) that are assumed to apply to individuals ( employees of corporations)
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social artifact
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any product of social beings or their behavior. Can be unit of analysis.
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Reductionism ( in qualitative)
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is that attempt to understand a complex phenomenon in terms of a narrow set of concepts, such as attempting to explain the American Revolution solely in terms of economics( or political idealism or psychology)
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the time dimension
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research in process that occur over time present social challenges that can be addressed through cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies.
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cross-sectional studies
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Are based on observations made at one time. Although such studies are limited by this characteristic, researchers can sometimes make interferences about processes that are overtime.
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longitudinal studies
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observations are made at many times. The observations may be made of samples drawn from general populations (trend studies), sample drawn from more specific sub-populations (cohort studies), or the same sample of people each time(panel studies)
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how does research design starts?
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it starts with an initial interest, idea or theoretical expectation and proceeds through a serious of interrelated steps to narrow the focus of the study so that concepts, methods, and procedures are well defined. A good research plan accounts for all the steps in advance.
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What is conceptualization?
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it is a mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions( concepts) are made more specific precise. you choose research method or methods (experiment versus surveys), if applicable, how it will be sampled.
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operationalize
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is one step beyond to conceptualization . it is a process of developing operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable
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what is a research proposal?
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provides a preview of why study will be undertaken and how it will be conducted. A research project is often required to get permission or necessary resources(funds) . Even when not requires, proposal is useful a device for planning
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conceptualization=
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operationailze + surplus value
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what are conceptions?
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conceptions are mental images we use as summary devices for bringing together observations and experiences that seem to have something in common. We use terms or labels to reference these conceptions.
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what are concepts?
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are constructs derived by mutual agreement from mental images.
or they represent the agreed-on-meanings we assign to terms. OUr concepts don't exist in the real world, so it can't be measured directly, but we can measure the things that are concepts to summarize |
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Conceptualization
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is the process of specifying observations and measurements that give concepts and definite meaning for the purposes of a research study
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what does conceptualization includes?
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it includes specifying the indicators of a concept and describing its dimensions
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precise definitions
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they are even more importance in descriptive than explanatory studies. The degree of precision needed varies with the type and purpose of the study
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what does operationalization involves?
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It involves the series of interrelated choices: Specifying the range of variation i.e. appropriatefor the purposes of the study, determining how precisely to measure variables, accounting for relevant dimensions of variables, clearly defining the attributes of variables and their relationships, and deciding on appropriate level of measurement.
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of our four levels of measurements?
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nominal
ordinal interval ratio |
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nominal
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different?
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ordinal
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which is better?
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interval
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how much of the difference?
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ratio
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benevolent measurements describing a variable that has nominal, ordinal and interval qualities and and is based on a " true zero" point. In example age.
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What are the criterias of the quality measures?
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precision
accuracy reliability validity |
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reliability
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means getting consistent results from the same measure
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instruments to test reliability?
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–Test retest method
–split half method –they use established measures – examination of work performed by research workers. |
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Instruments to test the validity?
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–face validity( makes it seem a reasonable measure)
–criterion related validity( the degree to which a measure Relates to some external criterion. ( college board predicts grades and then measure) –construct validity( of the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships –content validity( the degree to which the measure covers the range of meanings in the concept) |
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was the best solution to create reliable tests?
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use several different measures
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what is the usefulness of an experiment?
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It is an excellent vehicle for controlled testing of causal processes
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what does the classical experience test?
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It tests the effects of an experimental stimulus ( the independent variable) on dependent variable through the pretesting and post testing of experimental and control groups
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what is important for a group or experiments?
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It is generally less important that a group of experimental subjects be representative of some larger population than that experimental and control groups be similar to each other
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what is a double-blinded experience?
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Guards against. experimenter bias, because neither the experimenter nor a subject knows which subjects are in the control and experimental groups
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what are the methods of achieving comparability in experimental and control groups?
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–Probability sampling (random selection mechanism)
–randomiaztion( they need for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly) –matching( pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities) randomization is the generally preferred method |
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what is external invalidity?
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Refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the real-world
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what is field research?
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It involves the direct observation of social phenomena in their natural settings. Typically, field research is qualitative rather than quantitative
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naturalism?
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and approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately
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ethnomethodology?
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and approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements, this method often involves the international breaking up of agreements as a way of revealing their existence
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grounded theory?
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An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding observations. This is very different from hypothesis testing, in which theory is used to generate hypothesis to be tested through observations
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Case studies?
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The in-depth examination of a single incidence of some social phenomena, such as the village, a family, or a juvenile gang.
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Extended case method ?
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The technique developed by Michael Burawoy in which case study of donations are used to discover flaws in and to improve existing social theories.
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institutional ethnography?
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A research technique in which a the personal experiences of individuals are used to reveal power relationships an other characteristics of the institutions with in which it operates
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participatory action research?
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PAR an approach to social research in which the people being studied are given control over the purpose and procedures of the research, intended as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior of those they study
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focus group
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to create a focus, researchers bring subjects together and observe their interactions as they explore a specific topic
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facts:
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feed researchers often conduct in-depth interviews that are much less structured than those conducted in survey research. Qualitative interviewing is more of a guided conversation than a search for specific information. eeffective interviewing involves skills of active listening and ability to direct conversations unobtrusively
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facts:
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whenever possible, the observations should be recorded as they are made, otherwise, they should be recorded as soon as afterward as possible
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advantages of field research
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–the depth of understanding
–flexibility –in expansiveness |
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facts:
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compared with surveys and experiments, field research measurements generally have more validity but less reliability. Also, field research generally not appropriate for arriving at statistical descriptions of large populations.
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unobtrusive methods
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methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. both qualitative and quantitative
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what are three unobtrusive methods?
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–content analysis( is a social research methods appropriate for studying human communications through social artifacts. (paintings, websites laws)
–analysis of existing statistics –comparative and historical research |
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common units of analysis in content analysis are:
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elements of communications: words, paragraphs, books and so forth
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content analysis involves coding what is coding?
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It means transforming raw data into categories based on some conceptual scheme. Coding may attend to both manifest and latent content requires judgments on the part of the researcher
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pros and cons for content analysis
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–pro, include economy, safety, and the ability to study processes occurring over a long time
–Cons: limitations to recorded communications and can raise issues of reliability and validity( problems of validity in the analysis of existing statistics can often be handled through logical reasoning and replication) |
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facts:
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social scientists use comparative and historical methods to discover patterns in the histories of different cultures
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what is evaluation research?
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Evaluation research is a form of applied research best studies that affect of social interventions
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The recency effect
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means that people tend to only remember the last thing they heard
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what is the best design for an evaluation research?
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The best design is an experimental design. With such a design there is a random allocation of both the experiment group and the matching control group during the pre-and post-measurement. As a consequence, experimental design takes all possible effects into account.
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The Issues of measurements in an evaluation research?
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–a careful fomulation of the problem, including relevant measurements and criterias of success or failure
– specify the intervention being studies and the population targeted by the intervention, and decide whether to use existing measures or the devise new ones |
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Types of evaluation research design?
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–experimental or quasi-experimental designs
–evaluators can also use qualitative methods of data collection, but also old quantitative data is useful |
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what is known experimental design?
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The random allocation experiment and control group pre-and post-measurements. pure causality
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facts:
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match control group with given experiment group no pure causality
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social context
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–evaluation research entertain special logistical and ethical problems since is embedded in the day-to-day events of real life
–the implications of evalution research won't necessarily be put into practice, especially if they conflict with official points of view |
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what is social indicators research?
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–social indicators can provide an understanding of broad social processes
–computer-simulation models hold promise of allowing researchers studied the possible results of social interventions without having to incur those results in real |
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what is suppress a variable ?
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it conceals the relationship between two of the variables
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what is a distorter variable?
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causes the apparent reversal in the relationship between two other variables( from negative to positive or vice versa)
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