Memory Chapt 9 Myers 8Th Edition

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memory

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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flashbulb memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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encoding

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the processing of information into the memory system...eg. by extracting meaning

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storage

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the retention of encoded information over time

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retrieval

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the process of getting information out of memory storage

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sensory memory

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the sevendigits of a phone number shile dialing, befor the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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how does Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin's classic three stage processing model of memory work

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first record to be remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory which is them processed into a short term memory bin where we encode it through rehearsal for long term memory and later retrieval
limited and fallable system.

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how is atkinson and shiffrins three stage model modified today?

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some long term memory slips in without our conscious attention. incoming stimuli and info from our long term memory become conscious short term memories in a temporary zone like a work zone where we actively associate now and old info and solve problems.

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working memory

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a newer understanding of short term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information and of information retrieved from long term memory

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time and frequency and or well learned info such as word meanings

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what types of info do we encode automatically

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space
time-noting sequence of events
frequency-keep track of how many times things happen

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effortful processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. many of these things become easy after practice.

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rehearsal

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the conscious repetition of int either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

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spacing effect

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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learning of nonsense syllables=the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning

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next in line effect

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the poorest memories are for what was said by the person just before them when asked to go around the circle saying words and attempting to remember what was said by the others. When we are next in line, we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last persons words

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how are sleep and memory connected

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info processed in seconds just before sleep is seldom remembered. info presented in the hour before sleep is well remembered

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serial position effect

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people remember the last and first items in a list better than those in the middle

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what are the three ways we process info

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by encoding its meaning, by encoding its image and by mentally organizing it.

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what is the usual way people process verbal info for storage?

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by associating it with what we already know or imagine. what we hear depends on how the context and our experience guide us to interpret and encode the sounds.

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visual encoding

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encoding of picture images

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acoustic encoding

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the encoding of sound especially the sound of words

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semantic encoding

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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

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imagery

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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

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mnemonics

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memory aids, especially thos techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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chunking

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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self reference effect

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info deemed relevant to me is processed more deeply and remains more accessible

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rosy retrospection

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people tem to recall event s such as a camping holiday more positively than they evaluated them at the time.

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what types of mnemonic devices are there

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spatial, acoustic, visual

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what are two types of sensory memory

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iconic memory-in sensory memory, a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory-in sensory memory a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere,sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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short term memory decay

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unless rehearsed, verbal info may be quickly forgotten

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how many bits of info does our short term memory typically store

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seven

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what is better short term recall of random numbers or letters, and for sounds or sights

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numbers and sounds are remembered a bit better in short term memory

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our capacity for storing long term memories is ....

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essentially limitless

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what is the estimate of the amount of info bits that an average adult has in memory, and how much storage space is available

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a billion, there is enough storage capacity to accomodate a thousand to a million times that amount.

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wilder penfield (1969)

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believed that our whole past is stored in memory. to predict possible side effects of brain surgery, he electrically stimulated different cortical regions of his patients brains while they were awake, occasionally they reported hearing things and he understood that to be because he activated long lost experiences etched permanently on the brain.

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Karl Lashley (1950)

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provided evidence that memories do not reside in single specific spots. trained rats to solve a maze then cut out pieces of their cortex's and retested their memory. no matter what small sections were cut out the rats retained at least a partial memory of how to solve the maze

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how do researchers explain forgetting

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occurs as new experiences interfere with our retrieval and as the physical memory trace decays

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does long term memory survive an electrical activity ceasation in the brain.

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yes, Gerard (1973) trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food then lowered their body temperature until the brains electical activity ceased. When hamsters revived they still remembered.

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where is the search for the physical basis or memory currently focused

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the synapses

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long term potentiation (LPT)

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an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. Term coined by Gary Lynch (2002)

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in snails when learning occurs the snail releases more of the neurotransmitter ??? at certain synapses

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serotonin

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durgs that block LTP ???? with learning and drugs that enhance LTP ???? learning

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interfere, enhance

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CREB is...

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a protein that can switch genes off or on. Genes code the production of protein molecules. with repeated neural firing a nerve cell's genes produce synapse strengthening proteins enabling long term memories to form. sea slugs, mice and fruit flies with enhanced CREB production have displayed enhanced memories

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glutamate

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a brain neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication (LPT)

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what is a safe available and free memory enhancer

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study followed by adequate sleep

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passing an electic current through the brain will have what effect on memories

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won't disrupt old memories but will wipe out very recent memories. A blow to the head can do the same

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How can stress hormones affect memory

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they make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that something important has happened. Also the amygdala, emotion processing clusters in the limbic system boost activity in the brains memory forming areas.

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The brain area vital for laying down memories

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hippocampus

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when prolonged stress has what effect on memory

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corrodes neural connections and shrinks the hippocampus

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when sudden stress hormones are flowing older memories ...

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may be blocked, ie. blank mind while speaking in public.

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amnesia

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the loss of memory. conscious recall not working but unconscious capacity for learning is fine. Can learn how to do something but may not know and declare that they know.

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implicit memory

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retention independent of conscious recollection also called procedural memory

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare also called declarative memory

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What are the types of long term memories, where are they processed and what do they consist of.

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explict, with conscious recall, processed in the hippocampus and consist of facts(general knowledge) and personally experienced events.

implicit, without conscious recall, are processed in part by cerebellum and consist of skills (motor and cognitive)and classical and perant conditioning effects

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brain scans that capture the brain forming a memory reveal activity in what parts of the brain

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the hippocampus and the frontal lobes

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when people recall words (using explict memory) what part of the brain lights up on PET scans?

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the hippocampus

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damage to the right or left hippocampus produces what results

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left damage have trouble remembering verbal info and right damage have trouble remembering visual designs and locations

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the rear area of the hippocampus seems to process what kind of info

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spacial, it grows bigger the longer a london cabbie has been navigating the maze of city streets

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what part of the brain acts like a loading dock where the brain registers and temporarily stores the elements of a remembered episode

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hippocampus

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how is sleep, hippocampus activity and memory related

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the greater the hippocampus activity during sleep after a straining experience, the better the next day's memory

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calling up a telephone number and holding it in working memory activates what part of the brain

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the left fronal cortex

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calling up a party scene would activate what parts of the brain

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likely activate a region of the right hemisphere

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what does it seem like amnesia patients have lost

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not the memories themselves but the connections that enable them to reassemble the fragments into an explicit memory of an event.

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the amygdala provides what to your memories

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emotional associations

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what part does the cerebellum play in memory

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forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning.

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how do researchers explain infantile amnesia

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the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to develop and it deals with explicit memories. also explicit memory indexed by words-non speaking infant have not learned.

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recall

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information leaned earlier and on a fill in the blank test

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recognition

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.

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relearning

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a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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priming

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William James-wakeing of associations. The activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory.

after seeing or hearing rabbit we are later more likly to spell the spoken wrod as hare.

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can context affect memory retrieval?

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yes it does all the time

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dega vu

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cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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describe the effects of internal states on retrieval

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specific states or emotions can prime us to recall events associated whith those states ofr emotions. While in a good mood, we tend to retrieve memories consistent or congruent with that happy state, same goes when depressed. Moods also prime us to interpret others behavior in ways consistent with our emotions.

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mood congruent memory

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood.

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william james (1890) on forgetting

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if we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing.

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why is forgetting also helpful

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helps keep clear head. S who had a crazy great memory had difficulty thinking abstractly, generalizing, organizing and evaluating.

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daniel schacter (1999) came up with seven sins of memory what are they

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three sins of forgetting
-absentmindedness, inattention to details produces encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we put down the car keys)
-transience, storage decay over time (unused info fades)
-blocking, inaccessibility of stored info(seeing an old classmate we may feel the name on the tip of our tongue but have retrieval failure)

three sins of distortion
-misattribution, confusing the source of info (remembering a movie scene as an actual happening)
-suggestibility, the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question later becomes a young child's false memory
-bias, belief colored recollections(current feelings may colour remembered initial feelings

one sin of intrusion
-persistence, unwanted memories (haunted by a tramatic experience)

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age related memory decline is explained in part by

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encoding efficiency is slower in older adults

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ebbinghaus' forgetting curve

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after learning lists of nonsense syllables, he studied how much he retained up to 30 days later. he found that memory for novel information fades quickly then levels out

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retroactive interference

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when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier eg. learning new students names typically interferes with a teachers recall of the names of previous students.

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info. mental attic gets cluttered

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positive transfer

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when old info can facilitate our learning of new info. it is only when old and new info compete with each other that interference occurs

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repression

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes form consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feeling and memories, freuds concept, not aggreed upon currently

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misinformation effect

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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source amnesia

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experience, heard about, read about aor imagined also called source misattribution.

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why can't we be sure whether a memory is real by how real it feels?

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because memory is a reconstruction as well as a reproduction

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list some differences and similarities between true and false memeories

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fals memories feel like true memories and are equally durable so neither the sincerity nor the longevity of a memory signifies it is real. True memories contain more details than imagined ones, which tend to be the gist of an event-the meanings and feelings associated with it.

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what can we do in every day situations to better remember a persons name or study material

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study repeatedly to boost long term recall
spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material

make the material personally meaningful

to remember a list of unfamiliar items use nmenomic devices

refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues

recall events while they are fresh, before you encounter possible misinformation.

minimize interference

test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know