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357 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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reflex arc
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receptor
(sensory neurons) interneuron (motor neurons) effector |
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CNS
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interneurons, brain, spinal chord
integrate nervous sinals betwen sensory and motor |
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somatic nervous system
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responds to external environment
motor = skeletal muscle acetylcholine voluntary |
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autonomic nervous system
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involuntary
sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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sympathetic
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fight or flight
increase found in spinal chord epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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parasympathetic
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rest and digest
acetylcholine |
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lower brain
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medulla
hypothalamus thalamus cerebellum integrates subconscious activities respiratory, salvation, emotions, pain, pleasue |
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higher brain
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cerebrum
incapable of functioning without lower brain stores memories and processes thought |
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the eye
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first strikes cornea (nonvascular)
lens cilliary muscle circles lends its a converging lens imagine on retina = real and inverted rods = black and white cones = color |
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iris and pupil
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iris = colored
dark = sns dilates pupil bright = psns contracts iris to constrict |
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the ear
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outer = auricle, external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane
middle = malleus, incus, stapes inner = hair cells, organ of corte, semicircular canals |
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peptide hormones
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derived from peptides
manufactured in the rough ER cleaved in the golgi apparatus secreted via exocytosis water soluble |
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receptor hormones
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peptides have difficulty diffusing through effector
so they attach to membrane-bound receptor activate ion channels or secondary messenger |
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intracellular second messengers
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cAMP
cGMP calmodulin activates or deactivates ion channels to create cascade of chemical reactions to amplify effect of hormones |
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steroid hormones
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derived from cholesterol
formed in smooth ER and mitochondria lipids (need protein transport molecule) act at transcription level |
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important peptide hormones
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anterior pituitary = FSH, LH, ACTH, hGH, TSH, prolactin
posterior pituitary = ADH, oxytocin parathyroid = PTH pancreatic = glucagon, insulin |
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important steroid hormones
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adrenal cortex = cortisol, aldosterone
gonad = estrogen, progesterone (placenta), testosterone |
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tyrosine derivatives
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T3
T4 epinephrine norepinephrine formed by enzmes in the cytosol or rough ER |
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thyroid hormones
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lipid
slowly released high affinity = latent period increase transcription |
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anterior pituitary
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located in the brain beneath the hypothalamus
hGH ACTH LH FSH TSH prolactin |
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hGH
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peptide
anterior pituitary increases mitosis growth of all cells nonspecific |
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ACTH
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adrenocorticotrpic hormone
peptide anterior pituitary stimulates release of glucocorticoid via secondary messenger cAMP stimulated by stress |
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TSH
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thyroid-stimulating
peptide adrenal cortex stimulates release of T3, T4 increases thyroid size, number, and rate |
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prolactin
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peptide
anterior pituitary promotes lactation inhibits menstrual cycle |
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FSH
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peptide
anterior pituitary growth of follicals in female sperm production |
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LH
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peptide
anterior pituitary causes ovulation stimulates estrogen and testosterone |
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posterior pituitary
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support tissue for nerve endings
synthesized in neural cell bodies of hypothalamus oxytocin ADH |
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oxytocin
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peptide
posterior pituitary increase uterine contraction milk from breast |
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ADH
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antidiuretic hormone
aka vasopressin peptide posterior pituitary causes kidney ducts to be permeable to H20 decreases urine inceases blood pressure |
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aldosterone
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adrenal cortex
corticoid distal tubule increase Na+, Cl- reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion increases BP |
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adrenal glands
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located on top of kidney
cortex = steroid hormones aldosterone and cortisol |
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cortisol
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steroid
adrenal cortex glucocorticoid increases blood glucose degrades adipose for energy anti-inflammatory |
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
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adrenal medulla
tyrosine derivatives vasoconstrictors = organ, skin vasodilators = skeletal considered stress hormones |
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T3 T4
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thyroid hormone
increase basal metabolic rate |
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calcitonin
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peptide
thyroid gland decreases osteoclast activity and number decreases blood calcium |
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pancreas
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acts as both exocrine and endocrine glands
insulin glucagon |
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insulin
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peptide
pancreas released when blood levels of carbs or proteins are high lower blood glucose levels |
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glucagon
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peptide
pancreas stimulates glycogensis (breakdown of glycogen) breaks down fat raises blood glucose levels |
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PTH
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peptide
increases blood calcium increases osteocyte absorption of calcium and phosphate from bones |
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spermatozoon
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Head = acrosome, nucleus
midpiece = mitochondria (movement) tail |
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male reproduction
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gonads are called testes
sperm produced in seminiferous tubules of testes testosterone = primary androgen sperm matures in epididymis propelled from vas deferns to urethra |
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female reproductive system
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1. primary oocyte within the follicle
2. growing follicle = theca cells surrounding granulosa cells which surround zona pellucida 3. secondary follicle 4. ovulation = follicle ruptures releasing secondary oocyte 5. corpus luteum develops 6. generates to corpus albica if no feritilization |
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developmental stages
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morula, blastula, gastula
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ovarian cycle
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follicular phase
ovulatory phase luteal phase |
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menstrual cycle
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mentrual flow
proliferative phase secretory phase |
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certain types of reactions
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SEA MOuRNS CANned PEAs
substitution electropilic - aromatic most other reactions - nucleophilic substitution carbonyl - addition nucleophilic pi bonds - electrophilic addition |
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fertilization
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takes place in fallopian tubes
the nuclei of the ovvum and sperm fuse to form the zygote |
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cleavage
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begins with zygote in fallopian tube
begins to secrete HCG prevents degredation of corpus luteum and secretes estrogen |
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determination
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process where a cell becomes committed to a specialized path
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primary germ layers
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ecToderm = ouTer coverings
enDoDerm = Digestive tract, liver, pancreas Mesoderm = Muscle, bone |
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induction
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occurs when one cell type affects the direction of differentiation for another cell type
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exocrine glands
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release enzymes to the external environment through ducts
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endocrine glands
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release hormones directly into body fluid
bind to receptors alter metabolic activities, growth and development, reproduction |
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mRNA
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delivers the DNA code for amino acids to the cytosol where the proteins are manufactured
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rRNA
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combines with proteins to form ribosomes
(the cellular complexes that direct the syntheis of proteins) synthesized in the nucleolus |
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tRNA
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collects amino acids in cytosol and transfers them to the ribosome for incorporation into a protein
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transcription
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trascription requires a promoter
beginning is called initiation RNA polymerase scans DNA for promotors transcription biubble is formed and elongation beings |
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elongation
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RNA polymerase unzips DNA and elongation begins
one strand of DNA nucleotides transcribed into complimentary RNA sequence transcription = 10x slower than replication |
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transcription regulation
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most genetic regulation occurs at transcruption when regulatory proteins beind DNA and activate or inhibit transcription
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gene regulation in prokaryotes
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respond to enivronmental changes
several genes in a single transcript |
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gene regulation in multicellular organisms
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to control the intra and extra cellular environments of the body
only one gene per transcript |
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operon
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a sequence of bacterial DNA containing an operator, a promotor, and related genes
genes outside an operon code for activators and repressors |
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post transcriptional processing
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prokaryotes = rRNA and tRNA go to post-transcription process, mRNA directly to translate proteins
eukaryotes = all go to processing for additional gene regulation |
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primary transcript
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initial mRNA nucleotide sequence
processed 1. addition of nucleotides 2. deletion of nucleotides 3. modification of nitrogenous bases |
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5' and 3'
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5' cap serves for attachment site for protein synthesis
3' end with poly A tail for protection from exonucleases |
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snRNPs
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enzyme-RNA complex
recognizes nucleotide sequences at the end of introns |
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introns
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dont code for proteins
remain IN the nucleus much longer than exons |
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exons
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can be spliced together to code for different things
EXIT the nucleus to be translated |
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DNA denaturing
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denatured is less viscous, denser, more UV absorbant
2 strands separated when heated, high salt, or high pH GC have greater Tm due to 3 H bonds |
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nucleic acid hybridization
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DNA-DNA
DNA-RNA RNA-RNA |
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restriction enzymes
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cut nucleic acid at restriction sites forming palendromic sequences
hybridize at sticky ends |
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viral methylaton
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bacteria protect their DNA from restriction enzymes by methylation
associated with inactive genes |
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recombinant DNA
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two DNA fragments cleaved by the same endonuclease joined together
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DNA library
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take DNA fragment, use a vector to insert it back into the bacteria, grow in large quantities called clones
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cDNA
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DNA reverse transcribed from RNA
it lacks introns important because bacteria cant remove introns |
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PCR
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fast way to clone DNA
target DNA is denatured and mixed with many complimentary primers primers hybridize with DNA fragments specialized polymerase replicates DNA fragments |
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Southern blotting
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identifies specific sequences of DNA by nucleic acid hybridization
1. chop up DNA 2. use electric field to spread out pieces according to size 3. blot on membrane 4. add radioactive probes 5. visualize |
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northern blot
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identifies RNA fragments
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western blot
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can detect a particular protein in a mixture of proteins by using antibodies
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codon
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three nucleotides on mRNA strand
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stop codons
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UAA
UGA UAG |
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start codon
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AUG
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avagadros law
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v is proportional to n
gas is proportional to volume g/v = density p * MW/RT |
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exponential natural decay
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N = Noe ^ λt
t1/2 = ln2/λ |
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momentum in two planes
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x: m1v1 = (m1+m2)vfcosØ
y: m2v2 = (m1 + m2)vfsinØ m1v1/m2v2 = cosØ/sinØ |
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conservation of energy
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GPe --> Ke --> EPe
PEs --> PEg 1/2kx^2 = mgh x^2 proportional to h |
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"US 1" Example
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mg - Fn = ma (centripital acceleration)
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car coming around a bank curve
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F(cp) = FnsinØ
FnsinØ = mv^2 / r |
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ball on a string
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Tension = Fcp
T = mv^2 / r r = length of rope |
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free body diagram
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O = Fn + TrsinØ - mg
m(a)x = TrcosØ - Ff |
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innate immunity
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skin
stomach chemicals (lysozomes) phagocytes (eat bad stuff) |
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hemoglobin oxygen curve
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hemo = protein, 4 polypeptide chains surrounding iron cofactor (each can attach to 1 oxygen)
how oxygen travels to tissue if you increase pressure, O2, H+, temp, shift to right low affinity for O2 |
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breathing
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gas exahnge starts at terminal bronchials
main gas exchange = aveoli in = air sucked in by pressure, diaphragm contracts, volume increases out = relax diapragm, volume decreases, pressure increases active exhale = passive recoil of diapragm |
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conduction
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starts in nose, warms and moistens
pharynx = shared by air and food larynx = vocal chords and cartilage epiglotis = cartilage, goes over espophagus trachea = horse shaped rings |
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blood vessels
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blood leaves heart in aorta (biggest artery)
artery = takes away blood arterioles capillaries = bring oxygen, nutrients venules veins = take blood to heart, one-way valves |
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BP
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systalic = highest pressure in system (action potential)
diastolic = resting pressure action potential go down to AV node and pause |
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Kidneys
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1* function = excrete waste
2* function = homeostasis outer area = cortex inner area = medullum renins job is to reabsorb Na+ increase renin, increase bp if dehydrated, low bp and want ADH and aldosterone |
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liver
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get blood from heart via hepatic artery from hepatic portal vein
protein and carb metabolism fat metabolism - creates bile, forms lipoprotein |
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fermentation
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pyruvate inhibits glucolysis and no ATP made
ethanol (yeast) cytoplasm lactic acid (muscle cell) 3C - 2C |
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velocity selector equation
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F=Eq
Fb = qvB Eq = qvB V = E/B |
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waves passing into different mediums
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v = λf
velocity increases wavelength decreases frequency remains the same |
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resonance moves
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lone pairs and pie electrons move towards a pie bond
pie electrons and lone pair move towards posititve charge single electrons move to a pie bond |
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reaction directions using P, V, T
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2A + B --> 4C + heart
increase [A] go right decrease [A] go left increase pressure go left decrease pressure go right increase volume go left decrease volume go right increase temperature go left decrease temperature go right |
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pulley
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tension through a massless rope is constant
upward forces equal downward forces mg = 2T T=1/2mg |
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vertebrata
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have notochord replaced by cartilage or bone
distinct brain encolsed in a skull |
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urey miller experiment
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life may have evolved from inorganic precursor
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earliest organism
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heterotrophs = 3.6 byo
cyanobacteria = 2.3byo (first oxygen producing photosynthetic bacteria) eukaryotes = 1.5 byo |
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first cells on earth
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coacervates = lipid or protein bilayer
sponatenously grow and form from fat |
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earth
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4.5 billion years old
atmosphere = N + H reducing environment |
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origin of life
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universe = 12-15 billion years old
only H gas existed He formed as earth cooled |
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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
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1. large populations
2. mutational equilibrium 3. immigration and emigration dont change pool 4. random mating 5. no selection of the fittest |
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polymorphism
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the occurance of distinctive forms (black or white)
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convergent evolution
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two species independently evolving similar structures
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divergent evolution
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two or more species evolving from the same group maintain a similar structure
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cartilage
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flexible, resiliant
connective tissue collagen no blood vessles or nerves hyaline = most common |
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hydroxyapatite
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Ca2+ stored in bone matrix in this form
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osteoclast
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resorb bone matrix
develop from WBC monocytes |
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osteocytes
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exchange nutrients and waste with blood
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osteoblast
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form bone
secrete collagen and organic compounds differentiate into osteocytes |
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multiunit smooth muscle
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each fiber attached to neuron so can contract independently
large arteries, hair, iris, bronchioles |
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single unit smooth muscle
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most common
connected by gap junctions contract as single unit small arteries, veins, uterus |
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smooth muscle
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involuntary
nonstriated one nucleus thich and thin filaments attached to intermediate filaments |
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cardiac action potential
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plateau after depolarization
slow Ca2+ channels to lengthen contraction |
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cardiac muscle
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striated (sarcomeres)
involuntary one nucleus gap junctions squeez itself hypertrophy |
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hypertrophy
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muscle cells dont undergo mitosis but icnrease in size and length
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fast glycolitic type II B
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low myoglobin
contract rapidly glycogen upper arms |
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fast oxidative type II
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red (myoglobin)
split ATP fast contract rapidly resistant to fatigue legs |
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slow oxidative type I
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slow-twitch
myoglobin split ATP slowly slow to fatigue but slow speed posture |
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muscle motor unit
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force of contraction depends on number and size of motor unit
small = first activated and intricate movements large = greater force |
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sarcolemma
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skeletal membrane
wrap myofibril (sarcomere) together to form muscle cells or fibers |
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skeletal muscle
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voluntary
connects one bone to antoher striated contraction sequeezes blood and lymph vessels aiding circulation multinucleus |
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sarcomere
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smallest functional unit of skeletal muscle
thin - actin thick - myosin |
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muscle groups
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agonist - contracts
antagonist - stretch synergistic - stabilize the agonist and origin |
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work done on an object
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W = ∆K + ∆PE + ∆E
W = ∆K + ∆U (no friction, no heat) |
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dynamic equilibrium
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if any velocities are nonzero but all are constant
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static equilirbiym
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if all velocities are zero
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find empriacle forumla by percent mass
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6%H, 94% O
6g H/1g = 6m 94gO/16g = 5/9 6/6 = 1:1 HO |
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metallic character
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increase from right to left
increase from top to bottom |
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electron affinity
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willingness of an atom to accept an additional electron
increases from left to right increases from bottom to top |
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electronegativity
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tendency of an atom to attract an electron in a bond it shares with another atom
increases from left to right increases from bottom to top |
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ionization energy
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energy necessary to detach an electron from a nucleus
increases from left to right increases from bottom to top |
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atomic radius
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increases from top to bottom
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effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
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amount of charge felt by the second electron
increasing from left to right increasing from top to bottom |
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large atoms
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unable to make strong pi bonds
have d orbitals allowing for more than 4 bonds |
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small atoms
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make strong pi bonds due to overlap of p orbitals
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carbonyl
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carbon double bonded to oxygen
aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acids, amides 1. planar stereochemistry 2. O2- and C+ |
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heterochromatin
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genes not actively transcirbed
tightly packed regions of repetitive sequences |
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euchromatin
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eukaryotic genes that are being actively transcribed by a cell
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RFLP
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identifies individuals rather than specific genes
DNA fingerprints used in court |
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saltatory conduction
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action potential jumps from one node of raniver to another
tiny gaps between myelin |
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myelin
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only vertebrates have myelin
CNS by oligodendrocyes PNS by Schwann icnreases rate that an axon can transmit signals |
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chemical synapse
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unidirectional
action potential arrives at synapses and activates channels Ca2+ flows in neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft |
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electrical synapse
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uncommon
gap junctions in cardiac visceral smooth muscle faster than chemical synapse |
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hyperpolar
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K+ channels so slow so for a time inside membrane becomes even more negative than resting potential
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resting potential
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equilibrium by Na+/K+ pump
3+ Na out of cell 2+ K in cell |
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depolarization
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membrane potential reverses and is + in and - out
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action potential
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disturbance in electric fields across a neuron
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axon
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if stimulus at axon hillock is great, generate an action potential down axon
carries actio potential to the synapse |
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dendrite
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receive a signal to be transmitted
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neuron
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functional unit of the nervous system
lost capacity to divide depends on glucose for chemical energy |
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nervous system
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allows for rapid and direct communication
results in muscular conractions or glandular secretion brain, spinal chord, nerves, eye, ear |
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hormonal communication
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slower, spreads throughout
affects many cells |
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neuronal communication
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rapid
direct specific |
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benzene
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undergoes substitution not addition
a flat molecule stabilized by resonace |
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oxidation of alkenes
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ozone cleaves alkenes at the double bond
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alkene properties
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more reactive
more acidic the more substituted, the more stable increase MW, increase BP increase branching, decrease BP |
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Reactivity/selectivity of halogens
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Reactivity ------>
I, Br, Cl, F <---------selectivity |
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halogenation chain reaction
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1. initiation = starts diatomic cleavage
2. propogation = halogen radical removes hydrogen making alkyl radical 3. termination = 2 radicals bond 3* > 2* > 1* > methyl |
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halogenation
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alkanes react with halogens in heat to form free radicals
most of the product is formed during propogation |
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combustion
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alkanes mixed with oxygen and energy is added
need high temps products are CO2, H20 and heat radical and exothermic |
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alkane physical properties
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increase chain = increase BP
branching = lower BP low density totally insoluble in water polar functional group secreases solubility |
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mucous cell
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composed of sticky glycoproteins
slide food along protects epithelial lining |
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peristalsis
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bolus moved down esophagus
the wave-like motion of smooth muscle that moves food through the digestive tract |
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stomach
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flexible pouch that mixes and stores food
reduces to chyme exocrine glands protein digestion with pepsin low pH 2 |
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a-amylase
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in saliva
begins to break down starch (etc) chewing increases surface area no digestion in esophagus |
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angular force
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F = mv^2/r
some force must be applied to an object in order to give that object centripital acceleration |
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tension
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force acting through a flexible object with no mass (string on rope)
always think mg |
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hookes law
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when deformed, objects will exert a force proportional to their deformity
F = -k∆x k = mg/∆x |
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angular acceleration
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a = v^2/r
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normal force for an inclined plane
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mgsinØ
mg cosØ |
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newtons law of universal graviatation
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F = G * m1m2/r
g = 6.67 x 10^-11 |
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projectile motion
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initial verticle v = vsinØ
initial horizontal v = vcosØ verticle velocity = dictates time of flight |
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velocity vs. time graph
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slope = acceleration
up = + acceleration down = - acceleration area underneath curve is displacement |
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displacement vs. time graph
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slope = velocity
up slope = + velocity down slope = - velocity straight line = constant curved line = acceleration |
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power of two-lens
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Peff = P1 + P2
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lateral magnification of a two-lens system
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M=m1m2
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converging (convex)
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lens is thicker, it will converge
RIP |
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diverging (concave)
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thin center = diverge light
VUN |
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focal length
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fmirror = 1/2r
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diffraction
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waves move through a small opening and bend around the corner
constructive interference = bright bands destructive interference = dark bands |
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hydrogen bond
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strongest dipole-dipole interaction
H attaches to highly EN atom forming large dipole |
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resonance structure rules
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1. atoms cant move - electrons move
2. number of unpaired electrons must remain constant 3. must be in same plane |
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resonance structures
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molecules containing delocalized electrons resulting from pie bonds
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fixing CO2
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all microorganisms are capable
reducing CO2 and using the carbon to create organic molecules "expensive" |
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archaea
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like eukaryotes
found in extreme environments |
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prokaryotes
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no membrane bound organelles
nucleus bacteria and archaea |
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structure of virus
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capsid
nucleic acid lipid-rich protein envelope tail, base plate, tail fiber |
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vaccine
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an injection of antibodies or an injection of nonpathogenic virus with same capsid or envelope
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venules and veins
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64% of blood
act as reservoir 4x cross section than arteries |
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blood velocity
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slowest = capillaries
medium = veins fastest = arteries |
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diapragm
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inspiration occurs when it contracts
atmospheric pressure forces air into the lungs |
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nasal cavity
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space inside nose filters, moistens, warms
coarse hair traps dust mucus (globet cells) traps cilia moves hair to pharynx to swallow or spit |
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pharynx
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passageway for food and air
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trachea
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windpipe
ringed cartilage covered by ciliated mucus cells splits into right and left bronchi |
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larynx
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voice box
sits behind epiglottis (prevents food from entering trachea during swallowing) |
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alveoli
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oxygen diffuses into capillary, picked up by red blood cells
release CO2 into alveoli |
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oxyhemoglobin
|
98% of O2 in blood binds with hemoglobin
as o2 pressure increases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin increases |
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oxygen dissociation curve
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shifts right with CO2, [H+] and temperature
lowering of hemoglobin affinity for oxygen |
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gauge pressure
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a measure of the pressure compared to atmospheric pressure
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fluid open to the atmosphere
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P = ∂gy + Patm
Patm = 101,000 Pa |
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Fluids at rest
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experiences forces only perpendicular to the surface
independent of the area chosen P=∂gy |
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density of water
|
∂ = 1000kg/m^3
or 1gm/cm^3 |
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fission
|
the splitting of a single nucleus to form two lighter nucleus
exothermic |
|
|
fusion
|
combining of two nuclei to form a single heavier nucleus
exothermic |
|
|
rest mass energy
|
E=mc^2
when mass is created or destroyed c = 3 x 10^8 m/s |
|
|
fission
|
the splitting of a single nucleus to form two lighter nucleus
exothermic |
|
|
fusion
|
combining of two nuclei to form a single heavier nucleus
exothermic |
|
|
rest mass energy
|
E=mc^2
when mass is created or destroyed c = 3 x 10^8 m/s |
|
|
gamma ray
|
high frequency proton
annihilation |
|
|
electron capture
|
a proton is destroyed and a n neutron is created
|
|
|
positron emission
|
a proton becomes a neutron
|
|
|
beta decay
|
expulsion of an electron
a neutrino is emitted |
|
|
alpha decay
|
alpha particle (helium nucleus) is lost
|
|
|
radioactive decay
|
atoms that spontaneously break apart
no atoms with more than 83 protons are stable |
|
|
minus-strand RNA
|
measles, rabies, flu
compliment to mRNA and must be transcribed to positive RNA before being translated |
|
|
retrovirus
|
enveloped plus strand
AIDS reverse transcriptase DNA reverse transcribed from the RNA and encorporated |
|
|
plus strand RNA
|
common cold
proteins can be directly translated from the RNA |
|
|
lysogenic virus
|
viral DNA incorporated into host
or RNA virus, DNA reverse transcribed temperate virus dormant or latent |
|
|
lytic infection
|
virus takes over cells reproductive machinery and begins reproducing
virulent virus lysis of cell |
|
|
viral infection
|
virus absorbs to chemical receptor on host
nucleic acid of virus penetrates cell |
|
|
virus
|
not living organisms
require host reproductive machinery to reproduce dont metabolize organic nutrients, use ATP made from host can be crystallized without losing ability arent separated from external environment tiny infectious agent smaller than bacteria similar to proteins protein coat = capsid no virus contains DNA and RNA |
|
|
telophase
|
nuclear membrane reforms and nucleolus reforms
chromosomes decondense |
|
|
anaphase
|
sister chromatids split at centromere and move towards opposite ends
|
|
|
metaphase
|
chromosomes align along the equator
|
|
|
prophase
|
condensation of chromatin into chromosomes
centrioles move to opposite ends nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear spindle apparatus forms |
|
|
interphase
|
G1 = cell split. heterochromatin unwinds into euchromatin. THE LONGEST STAGE
S = replicate DNA. each chromosome duplicated. chromatids G2 = prepare to divide. RNA and protein synthesized. when MPF is enough = mitosis |
|
|
chromatin
|
DNA/Protein complex
chromatin uncoils when transcribed |
|
|
histone
|
+ charge
DNA wrapped tightly around globular protein nucelosome = 8 histones |
|
|
cancer
|
uncontrolled growth of cells
metastisize = spread oncogenes = cause cancer carcinogens = mutagens that cause cancer (UV) |
|
|
nonsense mutation
|
when base-pair substitution or insertion/deletion creates a stop codon
|
|
|
frameshift mutation
|
when deletion or insertion occurs in multiples other than 3
may be completely nonfunctional prtoein |
|
|
missense mutation
|
base-pair mutation that occurs in the amino acid coding sequence of a gene
|
|
|
base pair mutation
|
a point mutation where one base pair is switched with another
|
|
|
somatic/germ mutations
|
somatic cell mutations are not passed on
germ cell mutations are passed on to offspring |
|
|
chromosomal mutation
|
when the structure of a chromosome is changed
|
|
|
gene mutation
|
alteration in the sequence of DNA nucleotides in a single gene
|
|
|
mutation
|
alteration in the genome
can occur at chromosomal or nucleotide level |
|
|
dash-line wedge
|
black wedge = out of page
dash wedge = into the page lines = plane of page |
|
|
newman projection
|
view down axis of sigma bond
intersecting lines and circle are carbons |
|
|
fischer projection
|
verticle lines = into the page
horizontal = out of the page |
|
|
common valences
|
C = 4
N = 3 O = 2 H = 1 Halogen = 1 |
|
|
formal charge
|
number of electrons in the isolated atom minus the normber of electrons assigned in the lewis structure
|
|
|
cofactors
|
some enzymes need cofactors to function
are either minerals or coenzymes coenzymes = vitamins or derivatives |
|
|
substrates
|
the reactant or reactants an enzyme works on
(smaller than enzyme) binds with noncovalent bonds to the active site |
|
|
NADH and FADH2
|
coenzymes involved in the krebs cycle
|
|
|
cyclic AMP
|
important component of many secondary messenger systems
|
|
|
ATP
|
source of readily available energy in a cell
|
|
|
starch and cellulose
|
beta linkages
bacteria only |
|
|
glycogen
|
glucose polymerized
found in all animal cells alpha linkages muscle and liver cells |
|
|
proteins
|
chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
built from 20 amino acids |
|
|
eicosanoids
|
20 carbons
local hormones that regulate bp, body temp, smooth muscle contractions |
|
|
terpenes
|
vitamin A
vision |
|
|
steroids
|
4 ring structures
hormones vitamin D cholesterol |
|
|
glycolipids
|
ampipathic
in membranes of myelinated cells composing the nervous system |
|
|
phospholipids
|
glycerol backbone
2 fatty acids polar phosphate ampipathic major component of membranes |
|
|
adipocytes
|
fat cells
cytoplasm contains all triglycerides |
|
|
triglycerides
|
fats and oils
3 carbon backbone = glycerol 3 fatty acids store energy thermal insulation and padding |
|
|
fatty acids
|
building blocks
even number of carbons long carbon chains with carboxylic acid end saturated or unsaturated |
|
|
six groups of lipids
|
fatty acids
phospholipids triglycerides glycolipids steroids terpenes |
|
|
lipid
|
nonpolar
hydrophobic good barriers for aqueous environment |
|
|
plasma membrane
|
cytosol surrounded by phospholipid bilayer
phosphate group, 2 fatty acid chains, and glycerol backbone ampipathic prokaryotes dont contain cholesterol |
|
|
nitrification
|
N2 converted to ammonia
bacteria process more inefficient done by chemoautotrophy |
|
|
chemotroph
|
use oxidation of organic or inorganic matter for energy source
|
|
|
heterotrophs
|
use organic molecules for carbon source
|
|
|
phototrophs
|
use light as energy source
|
|
|
phase changes
|
melting-freezing
vaporization-condensation sublimation-deposition |
|
|
phase diagram
|
triple point - equilibrium as solid, liquid, and gas
critical point = substance cant be liquified anymore |
|
|
specific heat capacity
|
q = mc∆T
cwater = 1 cal |
|
|
boiling
|
occurs when the vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure
|
|
|
solubility factors
|
the solubility of a gas is proportional to its vapor partial pressure
as temp increases, solubility of salts increases gases decrease when temperatures increase |
|
|
solubility
|
solutes tendency to dissolve in a solvent
depends on the temp and the ions |
|
|
saturate
|
when the rates of dissolution and precipitation are equal
|
|
|
melting
|
when the vapor pressure of a solid phase equals the vapor pressure of a liquid phase
|
|
|
vapor pressure
|
the vapor pressure necessary to bring the liquid and gas phases to equilibirum
endothermic, increases with temp |
|
|
solution formation
|
1. endothermic. solute-solute bonds broken +∆H
2. endothermic. solvent-solvent bonds broken + ∆H 3. exothermic. solvent-solute bonds form - ∆H positive entropy |
|
|
conjugation
|
one bacteria has a plasmid with genes coded for sex pilus
F plasmid initiates conjugation genetic recombination |
|
|
transformation
|
bacteria incorporate DNA from external environment into genome
|
|
|
mean free path
|
distance traveled by a gas molecule between collisions
|
|
|
gases
|
all gases are miscible
mix regardless of polarities at low temps, heavier gases settle below light |
|
|
partial pressure
|
total pressure of gaseous mixture times the mole fraction
Pa = XaPtotal |
|
|
Daltons Law
|
total prssure is the sum of the partial pressure of each gas
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 |
|
|
effusion
|
the spreading of gas from high pressure to low pressure through a pinhole
effusion rate1 = √m2 ------------------------------------ effusion rate 2 = √m1 |
|
|
diffusion
|
the spreading of one gas into another gas or empty space
v1/v2 = √m2/√m1 |
|
|
rate of reaction increases with temp
|
rate generally doubles to triples with each 10*C
more collisions occur |
|
|
rate law
|
Rate forward = Kf [A]^a[B]^b
kf = rate constant |
|
|
the law of mass action
|
the relationship between a chemical equation and the equilibrium constant
K = products/reactants K = [C]^c * [D]^d ------------------------------ [A]^a * [B]^b |
|
|
intensive properties
|
independent of the size of the system
pressure and temperature |
|
|
extensive properties
|
proportional to the size of the system
volume, number of moles |
|
|
first law of thermodynamics
|
energy of the system and surroundings is always conserved
∆E = q + W |
|
|
second law of thermodynamics
|
heat cant be completely changed into work in a cyclical process
|
|
|
pressure
|
the greater the random translational kenetic energy of fas moelcules per volume, the greater the pressure
|
|
|
enthalpy
|
∆H = ∆U + P∆V
standard state, enthalpy is zero and 25*C |
|
|
enthalpy with no pressure
|
∆H = q
∆Hreaction = ∆Hproductes - ∆Hreactants |
|
|
entropy
|
∆S system + ∆S surroundings = ∆S universe
entropy of a system can decrease only if entropy of surroundings is increasing |
|
|
entropy
|
a reaction must increase entropy of the universe in order to proceed
equilibrium = entropy maximum increases with number, volume, temperature |
|
|
third law of thermodynamics
|
zero entropy to any purse susbtance at absolute zero
|
|
|
physical reaction
|
compound undergoes a reaction and maintains its identity
melting evaporation dissolution rotation of plain polarized light |
|
|
chemical reaction
|
compound undergoes a reaction and changes its molecular structure
combustion metathesis redox |
|
|
heisenberg uncertainty principle
|
the more you know about the momentum of a particle, the less you know about the position
|
|
|
relative configuration
|
differ only by one substituent and the other substituents are identical
|
|
|
geometric isomers
|
exist due to hindered rotation
cis = dipole moment trans = no dipole moment |
|
|
meso compounds
|
plane of symmetry that mkes them mirror images
achiral optically inactive |
|
|
sp
|
180*
linear |
|
|
sp2
|
120* trigonal planar
|
|
|
sp3
|
109.5*
tetrahedral, pyramidal, bent |
|
|
epoxides
|
three member cyclic ether
highly reactive anti addition |
|
|
transport or carrier proteins
|
designed to facilitate the diffusion of specific molecules across the membrane
|
|
|
facilitated diffusion
|
diffusion moves down the electrochemical gradient
glucose |
|
|
bacterial envelope
|
cell wall prevents it from bursting
|
|
|
flagella
|
long hollow rigid helical cylinders made from globular protein composed of flagellum
propelled from protein gradient |
|
|
bacterial reproduction
|
conjugation, transformation, transduction, binary fission
|
|
|
coordinate covalent bond
|
one nucleus donates both electrons
|
|
|
sigma bond
|
bonding pair of electrons are localized directly between two bonding atoms
lowest energy and most stable strong single bond |
|
|
pie bond
|
the orbital of the first pie bond forms above and below the sigma bond
prevents rotation double bond more reactive shortens the overall bond less strong higher energy level |
|
|
beats
|
Fbeat = I f1 - f2 I
|
|
|
wave reflection
|
some or all of the energy and momentum reflect back into first medium
continue in same orientation with smaller amplitude frequency remains the same denser = wave inverted = 180* shift less dense =upright = no phase shift |
|
|
antinode
|
maximum constructive interference
|
|
|
standing wave
|
still at nodes
violent at antinodes |
|
|
carbohydrates
|
C1 H2 O1
alcohol group on chiral carbon furthest from carbonyl acts as nucleophile |
|
|
distillation
|
separation based on vapor pressure
slow boiling conpound with lower bp (higher vapor pressure) captured first |
|
|
crystallization
|
pure substances form crystals more easily than impure
ineffective |
|
|
fatty acids
|
long carbon chains
carboxylic ends hormones phospholipid and glycolipid cell membrane fuel for the body stored as triglycerides |
|
|
saponification
|
triacylglycerols cleaved by NaOH to form soap
|
|
|
fatty acid properties
|
can be saturated or unsaturated
ampipathic mostly nonpolar store two times as much energy as carbs or proteins |
|
|
lipolysis
|
triacylglycerols hydrolyzed to form glycerol
in adipose cells reverse of esterification |
|
|
properties of aromatic compounds
|
cyclic
planar huckels rule even number of pie electrons |
|
|
double bonds
|
explain ability to stretch
induce shape irregularities |
|
|
alcohols
|
follow same trends as alkanes
BP increase with molecular weight BP decreases with branching BP and MP high because of hydrogen boding more soluble in H2O longer the chain, the less soluble |
|
|
velocity of sound waves
|
in a gas is limited by the speed of the molecules
sound waves move faster through hot |
|
|
intensity level
|
∆I ∆B
x10 +10 x10^2 +20 x10^3 +30 x10^4 +40 |
|
|
fluid from a spigot
|
v = √2gh
|
|
|
non ideal fluids
|
all real fluids are non ideal
increasing viscosity increases drag greatest velocity = center of pipe narrow pipe = more drag move from high to low pressure ∆P = QR |
|
|
surface tension
|
intensity of the intermolecular force
dependent on temperature (high temp = weak tension) |
|
|
convex meniscus
|
cohesive forces are stronger, the fluid is pulled downward
|
|
|
concave
|
if adhesive forces are stronger, fluid is pulled upward by the verticle compoent of surface tension
|
|
|
buoyant force
|
upward force acting on a submerged object
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced F = ∂fluid * V * g |
|
|
endocytosis
|
how cells acquire substances from extracellular environment
phago = to eat pino = to drink |
|
|
rough ER
|
ribosomes attached on cytosol side
translation propels proteins into ER lumen move to golgi |
|
|
golgi apparatus
|
membrane bound sacs
organizes and concentrates the proteins protein filled vesicles either: secretory vesicles, lysosomes, or go elsewhere |
|
|
peroxisomes
|
incorporate proteins and lipids from the cytosol
self replicate hydrogen peroxide regulate |
|
|
smooth ER
|
lacks ribosomes
looks tubular triglycerides produced cholesterol formation phospholipids oxidizes |
|
|
lysosomes
|
breaks down macromolecules
pH = 5 digest rupture and release their contents through autolysis |
|
|
nuclear pores
|
large holes in the phospholipid bilayer, the nuclear membrane
RNA can exit but DNA cant |
|
|
reduction synthesis
|
NABH4 + LiAlH4
reduce aldehydes and ketones only LiAlH4 can reduce esters and acalates |
|
|
reducing agents
|
LiAlH4
NABH4 H2 + Pressure |
|
|
Proteins
|
results in amino acids
hydrolized by enzymes nitrogen is by-product from gluconeogenesis of proteins |
|
|
fats
|
triglycerides
80-90% ingested fat go to lymph system major absorption = liver and adipose tissue fatty acids combine with albumin in the blood |
