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193 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is larger, mucosal surface or skin?
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mucosal surfaces
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where are 3/4 of lymphocytes in the body?
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in secondary lympoid tissues serving mucosal surfaces
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what antibody type accounts for 3/4 of all antibodies produced in the body?
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secretory IgA
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what is the alternative name for the GI tract?
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alimentary canal
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what is the purpose of the mouth?
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physical breakdown of food
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what is the purpose of the stomach?
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chemically degrade food via acid and enzymes
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what is the purpose of the small intestine?
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continue enzymatic degradation started in stomach
absorb nutrients |
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what is the purpose of the large intestine?
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store, compact, and periodically dispose of waste
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where are secondary lymphoid tissues of the gut?
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in surface epithelium of mucosa, underlying connective tissue (lamina propia)
mesenteric lymph nodes |
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what are the largest lymph nodes in the body?
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mesenteric lymph nodes
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to what are the mesenteric lymph nodes dedicated?
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gut
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where are mesenteric lymph nodes located?
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in mesentery, or connective tissue holding gut in place
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how is the adaptive immunity in the gut different from that in the rest of the body?
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is localized due to secondary lymphoid tissues in mucosa, whereas is started a long way away in rest of body
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what is the name of the structure formed by the tonsils?
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Waldeyer's ring
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where are the adenoids?
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either side of base of nose
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where are the palatine tonsils?
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either side of palate at back of oral cavity
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where are the lingual tonsils?
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on the base of the tongue
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what is caused by the removal of tonsils?
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reduced secretory IgA response to oral vaccines (e.g. polio vaccine)
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what organ is most heavily invested with lymphoid tissue?
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small intestine
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what lymphoid tissue is characteristic of the small intestine?
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Peyer's patches
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what are Peyer's patches?
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dome-like aggregates of lymphocytes bulging into intestinal lumen from intestinal wall
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what is included within Peyer's patches?
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5-200 B-cell follicles with germinal centers
T-cell areas with dendritic cells |
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what covers Peyer's patches in the small intestine?
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enterocytes
M cells |
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what are enterocytes?
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conventional intestinal absorptive cells
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what are M cells?
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microfold cells, which have folded luminal surface without microvilli
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what cells secrete digestive enzymes or mucus in the small intestine?
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enterocytes
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what is the function of M cells?
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take up intact microorganisms and particulate antigens from gut lumen
transfer to Peyer's patches directly |
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what is the layer of tissue between epithelial cell layer and lymphoid follicles of Peyer's patches?
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subepithelial dome
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what cells heavily occupy the subepithelial dome?
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dendritic cells
B cells T cells |
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besides Peyer's patches, what other types of lymphoid tissues are numerous within the lining of the small intestine?
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isolated lymphoid follicles
single follicles consisting of mostly B cells |
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over what structures are M cells located?
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Peyer's patches
isolated lymphoid follicles |
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what is the appendix?
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a secondary lymphoid organ of the large intestine, which is packed with lymphoid follicles
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what type of lymphatic vessels do Peyer's patches have?
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efferent lymphatics to mesenteric lymph nodes
don't have afferent lymphatics because they are the beginning of the lymphatic system in the gut |
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what causes appendix to rupture?
what does rupture of appendix cause? |
it is overrun w/ infection (appendicitis)
causes peritonitis |
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what chemokines cause the systemic immune system and gut-associated lymphoid tissue to develop differently?
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different members of TNF family of chemokines
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where are microorganisms released by M cells?
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basal membrane of the M cells
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what is enclosed in pockets of the basal membrane of M cells?
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dendritic cells
lymphocytes |
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what happens to dendritic cells of GALT once they are activated by antigens?
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migrate to T cell regions of Peyer's patches
migrate to mesenteric lymph nodes activate naive T cells |
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outside of organized lymphoid tissue, some isolated dendritic cells reside, how do they find pathogens?
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extend processes between epithelial cells w/o disturbing barrier
capture microbes & antigens from gut lumen |
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what type of cells are most lymphocytes of the mucosa?
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effector T cells
plasma cells |
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what type of cells are intraepithelial lymphocytes?
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distinctive type of CD8 T cells
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are intraepithelial lymphocytes naive or effector T cells?
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effector T cells, having been activated by antigen
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what is contained within intraepithelial lymphocytes?
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granules similar to CD8 CTLs
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why are intraepithelial lymphocytes limited in the number of antigens they can be activated by?
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have a very limited specificity
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what type of cells are generally contained in the lamina propia of the gut?
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CD4 T cells
CD8 T cells Plasma cells eosinophils mast cells |
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what type of cells are not present in the lamina propia of the gut unless it is inflamed or infected?
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neutrophils
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why is the adaptive immune response physiologically chronic in the gut?
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leukocytes are constantly being stimulated and activated by the constant sampling via M cells
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why can macrophages in the mucosa of the gut not independently initiate an inflammatory response?
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lack toll-like receptors
lack signalling receptors to produce inflammatory cytokines |
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what type of T cell response are mucosal macrophages less likely to initiate than skin macrophages?
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TH1 response
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what is the purpose of mucosal immune responses?
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restraint of pathogen (out of body), not removal
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what allows a quick response to a breach in the epithelial barrier of mucosae?
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chronic stimulation of GALT lymphocytes
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what happens to an unused immune system?
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becomes impaired
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when does a person's immune system mature in the context of microbial flora and common pathogens of the environment?
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early childhood
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what are the signs of a stunted immune system?
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small secondary lymphoid tissues
lower levels of serum immunoglobulin generally reduced capacity to make immune responses |
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to where are naive B cells and naive T cells restricted?
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not restricted where they can go
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how do lymphocytes enter the Peyer's patches?
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via high endothelial venules (HEVs)
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what chemokines attract naive lymphocytes to lymphoid organs?
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CCL21
CCL19 |
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to what receptor on lymphocytes do CCL21 and CCL19 bind?
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CCR7
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what happens to naive lymphocytes if they are not activated?
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continue recirculation via efferent lymph ducts
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loss of what accompanies the activation of lymphocytes?
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CCR7
L-selectin |
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expression of what accompanies activation of lymphocytes by GALT?
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alpha4:beta7 integrin
CCR9 receptor alphaE:beta7 integrin in intraepithelial lymphocytes |
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what is the pathway of a lymphocyte after activation in GALT?
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Peyer's patch/mesenteric lymph node -> efferent lymph duct -> blood -> mucosa of gut (which activated)
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what is the name for the process by which a lymphocyte finds the tissue which activated it?
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homing
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in gut-homing effector lymphocytes, what binding interaction allows the lymphocyte to diapedese from the blood vessel?
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binding of alpha4:beta7 (integrin on the lymphocyte) with MAdCAM-1 (addressin specific to endothelial cells of blood vessels in gut wall)
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what is MAdCAM-1?
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an addressin which is specific to the endothelial cells of blood vessels in the gut wall
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what chemokine causes lymphocytes to home to the gut? where is it released?
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CCL25
released from small intestine |
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to what receptor does CCL25 bind on lymphocytes?
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CCR9
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how do T cell interactions in the gut differ from those in other tissues?
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activates macrophages to destroy but not inflame in gut, but not rest of tissues (destroy and inflame in rest of tissues)
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what integrin is expressed in intraepithelial lymphocytes rather than the alpha4:beta7 integrin?
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alphaE:beta7
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to what molecule does the alphaE:beta7 integrin bind?
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E-cadherin
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what is caused by the binding of alphaE:beta7 integrin with E-cadherin?
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intercalation of intraepithelial lymphocytes between epithelial cells without disrupting barrier function
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what controls the expression of receptor/integrin expression for lymphocytes?
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dendritic cells, via retinoic acid (vitamin A derivative)
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what integrin and receptor make a lymphocyte skin-specific?
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alpha4:beta1 integrin
CCR4 receptor |
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is there complete restriction in the tissues served by mucosal-activated lymphocytes?
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no, lymphocytes activated by GALT can serve other mucosal tissues and vice versa
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what chemokine preferentially switches naive B cells, activated in GALT, to effector B cells which secrete IgA?
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TGF-beta
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what cells express poly-Ig receptors? where are they located?
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immature epithelial cells
stem cells located at the base of intestinal crypts |
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what antibody is secreted by the lactating mammary gland?
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IgA from all mucosal tissues
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what gives an infant maternal mucosal immunity toward gut flora and endemic pathogens?
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receiving maternal IgA from breast milk
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where is monomeric IgA secreted?
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in bone marrow
circulates in blood |
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where is dimeric IgA produced?
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produced in plasma cells, and secreted completely intact (including J-chain)
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where can dimeric IgA interact with antigens?
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lamina propia
endosomal compartments of enterocytes M cells |
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what happens to antigens bound to IgA in the lamina propia?
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carried back into intestinal lumen via transcytosis
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what happens to antigens bound to IgA in the endosomal compartments of enterocytes?
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neutralized and returned to intestinal lumen
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what happens to antigens bound to IgA in M cells?
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transcytosed into mucosa, specially targetted and neutralized for delivery to follicle or Peyer's patch
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what is the effect of IgA's interactions with mucus?
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forms coating on epithelium
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what are the functions of dimeric IgA?
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limits access, while not damaging tissue
restrict commensal organisms (to lumen and to small population) won't opsonize antigens or activate complement |
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what are the two subclasses of IgA molecules?
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IgA1 (long hinge)
IgA2 (short hinge) |
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what are the pros and cons of IgA1?
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long hinge makes multiple bindings on microbe easier (stabilizes Ig)
long hinge makes proteolytic cleavage easier |
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how have major bacterial pathogens evolved to inhibit effects of IgA1?
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evolved specific proteases for hinge region to keep it from inhibiting entrance
Fab fragments of IgA1 make pathogen more able to cross epithelium |
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in the blood, lymphatics, and ECF, which of the IgA subclasses forms the majority?
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93% IgA1
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in the colon, which subclass of IgA forms the majority?
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60% IgA2
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what is APRIL?
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TNF-family cytokine, made by cells in the colon, which induces isotype switching from IgM to IgA2 (rather than IgA1)
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what is selective IgA deficiency?
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disorder where a person produces all isotypes of immunoglobulins except IgA
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how common is selective IgA deficiency?
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1 in 500 caucasians
1 in 10,000 african americans less than 1 in 10,000 japanese |
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how does a person's immune system compensate for selective IgA deficiency?
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increase in production of all other antibodies, most importantly IgM (which has J-chain and can therefore be transported across mucosal epithelium)
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in what regard is selective IgA deficiency particularly detrimental?
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fighting off parasites
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what are the intestinal epithelium analogs to TLRs, which detect bacteria in cytoplasm?
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NOD proteins
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what is recognized by the NOD1 protein?
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muramyl tripeptide in gram negative bacterial cell walls
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what is recognized by the NOD2 protein?
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muramyl dipeptide in peptidoglycans of most bacterial cell walls
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what happens to NOD proteins when they encounter bacterial pathogens?
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form oligomers
activate RICK (a protein kinase) turn on NFkappaB pathway increase defensins, chemokines, and cytokines influx of inflammatory cells and lymphocytes innate immune response adaptive immune response (if needed) |
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what leukocytes are attracted by CXCL8?
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neutrophils
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what leukocytes are attracted by CCL3?
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monocytes
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what leukocytes are attracted by CCL4?
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eosinophils
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what leukocytes are attracted by CCL5?
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T cells
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what leukocytes are attracted by CCL20?
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immature dendritic cells
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what are the three possible life cycles of helminth worms?
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remain in intestinal lumen
colonize epithelial cells of intestinal lumen spend part of life cycle in liver, lungs, or muscle |
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what are helminth worms?
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parasites which compete with host for nutrients or damage local epithelial cells or blood vessels
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what type of immune response to helminth worms is protective?
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TH2 CD4 T cell dominated response
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what type of immune response to helminth worms generally fails to eliminate the pathogen and damages the tissue?
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TH1 CD4 T cell dominated response
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what induces a TH2 response? why?
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dendritic cell production of IL-4
promotes isotype switching to IgE |
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what chemokine attracts eosinophils?
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IL-5
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what does IgE binding to worm antigens activate?
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eosinophils
mast cells |
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what is released by eosinophils?
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major basic protein
cytotoxic molecules to damage and kill worms |
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what is released by mast cells?
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histamine
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how does histamine help to rid a patient of helminth worms?
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causes smooth muscle contraction which expels the worm
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what direct effects of TH2 cytokines help eliminate helminth worms?
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increase mucous secretion
increase smooth muscle cell contraction increase migration and turnover of epithelial cells |
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what cells in the intestines secrete mucous?
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goblet cells
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what cytokine, from TH2 cells induces epithelial cell repair and mucous secretion?
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IL-13
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what cytokine, from TH2 cells recruits and activates eosinophils?
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IL-5
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what cytokine, from TH2 cells, recruits and activates mast cells?
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IL-3
IL-9 |
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what are the immune cells of the lamina propia of the mucosal tissues?
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T cells
B cells plasma cells dendritic cells macrophages |
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what are the immune cells of the epithelium of mucosal tissues?
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intraepithelial lymphocytes
dendritic cells |
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what is active immunization?
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inject a vaccine which induces an immune response to a pathogen, thereby creating immunity to it in a person
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what is passive immunization?
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injecting preformed antibodies into a person to help them fight off an infection (does not create an immune response, and therefore does not produce memory cells)
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what are the four types of vaccines?
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live
dead live-attenuated toxoid |
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what are the two vaccines against human rotaviruses?
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Rotarix
RotaTeq live-attenuated vaccines |
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what are rotaviruses?
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double-stranded RNA virus, which is major cause of potentially fatal diarrhea in children (below age 5)
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what types of T cells produce IL-2?
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Naive T cells
TH1 cells some CD8 cells |
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on what cells does IL-2 have an effect? what is the effect?
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B cells - stimulates growth & J chain synthesis
T cells** - stimulates growth hematopoietic cells - stimulates NK growth |
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what types of T cells produce IFNgamma?
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TH1
CTL |
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on what cells does IFNgamma have an effect? what is the effect?
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B cells - differentiation, IgG2a switch
T cells - inhibits TH2 cell growth macrophages - inc. MHCI and II hematopoietic cells - inc. NK cells other somatic cells - inc. MHCI and II |
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from what cells is IL-6 secreted?
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macrophages, recognizing pathogens through TLR4, and others
B cells, activated by TH2 cells |
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what is the action of IL-6 in the acute phase response?
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stimulates hepatocytes to produce mannose-binding lectin, CRP, and fibrinogen
(results in complement and clotting) |
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what is the action of IL-6 in humoral immunity?
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activates B cells to proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells
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what cells produce granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF)?
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macrophages
fibroblasts endothelial cells |
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what is the function of G-CSF?
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stimulates bone marrow to produce granulocytes and stem cells, and then to release them into blood
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what cells secrete CCL19 and CCL21?
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stromal cells (CCL21)
dendritic cells (both) |
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what is the function of CCL19 and CCL21?
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homing of naive B cells to HEV and secondary lymphoid tissue
direct B cells in afferent lymph to T cell zones binds to CCR7 receptor of B cells and T cells |
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what are the functions of C3a and C5a?
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enhance vascular permeability
cause basophil and mast cell degranulation induce smooth muscle contraction |
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what are the functions of C5a?
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enhance vascular permeability
cause basophil and mast cell degranulation induce smooth muscle cell contraction chemotaxis stimulation of respiratory bursts activation of phagocytes stimulation of inflammatory cytokines |
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what type of interferon is interferon gamma?
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type II interferon
|
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in what cells is IFNgamma produced?
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early: NK cells (upon activation with IL-12)
late: Effector T cells (TH1, CTLs) |
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what are the functions, besides isotype switching, of IFNgamma?
|
activates macrophages
controls expression of HLA-DM, -DP, -DQ, and -DR and invariant chains activates CD8 T cells induces MHC2 molecules on some which usually only present MHC1 stimulates TH1 development inhibits TH2 development |
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what isotype of Ig is preferrentially switched to in the presence of IFNgamma? which is inhibited?
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+ IgG2a, IgG3
- IgE, IgG1, IgM |
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what is the effect of IFNgamma activation of CD8 cells?
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inhibits replication of virus in infected cells
increases processing and presentation of antigens via MHC class I |
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what cells, which normally don't do so, can IFNgamma cause to express MHC class II molecules?
|
thyroid cells (causing autoimmune thyroid disease)
|
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what disorder has IFNgamma been implicated in? why/how?
|
multiple sclerosis
causes demyelination of the axons |
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what type of interferon is interferon beta?
|
type I interferon
|
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what is the difference between types of interferons?
|
receptor bound
(type I - IFNalpha receptor, type II - IFNgamma receptor) |
|
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what human interferons are type I interferons?
what human interferons are type II interferons? |
IFNalpha, IFNbeta, IFNomega
IFNgamma |
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what cells produce IFNbeta?
|
fibroblasts
|
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what events induce production of IFNbeta?
|
viral infection of cell
recognizing double-stranded RNA via TLR3 |
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what are the interferon responses of interferons alpha and beta?
|
induce resistance to viral replication in all cells
increase expression of ligands for receptors on NK cells activate NK cells to kill virally infected cells signals neighboring cells to prepare for attack |
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what type of interferon is interferon alpha?
|
type I interferon
|
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what protein stimulates the synthesis of interferon alpha in cells?
|
interferon response factor 7 (IRF7)
|
|
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how does IFNalpha inhibit viral replication?
|
activate protein kinase R (PKR)
PKR inhibits synthesis of eIF-2 since eIF-2 is an activator of protein synthesis, protein synthesis is inhibited (for virus and cell) |
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what cells produce IL-1?
|
macrophages
monocytes dendritic cells fibroblasts |
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what is the function of IL-1?
|
increases expression of adhesion factors to enable transmigration of leukocytes
causes a fever |
|
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what is a pyrogen?
|
a substance which induces a fever
|
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what cells does IL-1 have an effect on? what effect does it have on them?
|
leukocytes - enables diapedesis
endothelial cells - promotes adhesion factors hypothalamus - produce fever |
|
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what type of cells secrete IL-3?
|
CD4 T cells
|
|
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what is the effect of IL-3?
|
targets and stimulates the differentiation of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells into myeloid progenitor cells
stimulates production of all cells within myeloid lineage |
|
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what cell types are myeloid cells?
|
erythrocytes
megakaryocytes granulocytes monocytes dendritic cells platelets macrophages |
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what cells produce IL-4?
|
TH2 cells
mast cells macrophages |
|
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what is the effect of IL-4 on B cells?
|
induces proliferation, differentiation and growth
induces isotype switching induces centrocyte switching to memory B cells |
|
|
to what immunoglobulin does IL-4 preferentially induce switching?
which does it inhibit? |
+ IgG1, IgG4, IgE
- IgM, IgG3, IgG2a |
|
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what is a centrocyte?
|
a B cell at the center of a lymphoid follicle
|
|
|
what is the effect of IL-4 on T cells?
|
induces switching to TH2 cells
inhibits switching to TH1 cells inhibits TH17 effects |
|
|
what cells secrete CXCL8 (IL-8)?
|
macrophages
(in response to bacterial products) |
|
|
what is the effect of CXCL8 (IL-8)?
|
recruit neutrophils
recruit basophils |
|
|
how does CXCL8 affect neutrophils?
|
binds to CXCR1 to guide along chemokine gradient
binds to CXCR8 (on rolling neutrophil) to change conformation of LFA-1 and CR3 (which strengthens binding) |
|
|
what cells produce lymphotoxin?
|
TH1 cells
|
|
|
what are the functions of lymphotoxin?
|
induces endothelial cells to change surface markers, allowing macrophages to bind and diapedese
kills chronically infected macrophages important role in development and maintenance of secondary lymphoid tissues and organs |
|
|
what cells produce IL-5?
|
TH2 cells
mast cells |
|
|
what are the effects of IL-5?
|
B cells - differentiation, IgA production
increase eosinophil growth and differentiation |
|
|
what cells secrete IL-12?
|
macrophages
dendritic cells (response to intracellular pathogens) |
|
|
what are the effects of IL-12?
|
activates NK cells to produce IFNgamma
induces CD4 cell differentiation into TH1 cells (secrete IL-2, IFNgamma, TNF-alpha) |
|
|
what cells secrete IL-13?
|
CD4 TH2 cells
basophils (key for initiating TH2 cells) |
|
|
what are the functions of IL-13?
|
induces B cell growth and differentiation
promotes IgE production inhibits macrophage activation inhibits production of pro-inflammatory cytokines |
|
|
what cells produce transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta)?
|
Treg cells
TH2 cells tumor cells |
|
|
what are the functions of TGF-beta?
|
controls cellular proliferation and differentiation
can induce apoptosis activate B cell differentiation into plasma cells immunosuppressor (inhibiting T cells other than Treg cells) PROTECTS FROM AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE |
|
|
to what isotype does TGF-beta preferentially induce switching?
to which does it inhibit switching? |
+ IgG2b, IgA
- IgM, IgG3 |
|
|
what cells secrete TNFalpha?
|
**macrophages**
mast cells lymphocytes (*TH1*, TH2, CTL) endothelial cells |
|
|
what are the functions of TNFalpha?
|
increases vascular permeability
recruits macrophages and neutrophils causes blood clotting induces MHC1 expression promotes localized death of tumor cells increases angiogenesis |
|
|
what cells secrete IL-7?
|
stromal cells of red marrow and thymus
(several others, but NOT lymphocytes) |
|
|
what are the functions of IL-7?
|
stimulates hematopoietic stem cells to differentiate into lymphoid progenitor cells
stimulates growth and development of pre-B and pro-B cells binds to CD34 and stimulates development of T cells stimulates proliferation of memory T cells |
|
|
what cells produce IL-2?
|
CD4 TH1 cells
CD8 T cells |
|
|
what functions does IL-2 have?
|
monocyte activation
increase in NK activity stimulation of division and IFNgamma release of/from T cells stimulation of division of B cells |
|
|
what cells secrete IL-10?
|
CD4 TH2 cells
CD8 cells monocytes mast cells |
|
|
what activation functions does IL-10 have?
|
costimulatory with IL-4 on mast cell proliferation
costimulatory with IL-2, IL-4, and IL-7 on T cell growth and CTL differentiation increase MHC class II in B lymphocytes secretion of IgG, IgA, and IgM |
|
|
what are the inhibitory functions of IL-10?
|
IFNgamma, IL-2, and TNF-beta in TH1 cells
IL-1, IL-6, TNF-alpha in macrophages |
|
|
what cells produce macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF)?
|
monocytes
granulocytes fibroblasts endothelial cells activated lymphocytes |
|
|
what are the functions of M-CSF?
|
influences growth, survival and proliferation of monocytes
proliferation and differentiation of macrophages induces synthesis of IL-1, G-CSF, IFN, TNF |
