Media And Communication

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Theory and Models

Media

Back 1

Plural term of medium. The means by which content is communicated between an origin and a destination.

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Theory and Models

Culture

Back 2

Things a distinctive group does such as rituals, practices and forms of expression.

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Theory and Models

Society

Social relations

Back 3

The whole social world in which we exist, or, 'the body of institutions and relationships within which a relatively large group of people live'.

Including the detail of everyday interactions and the operation of broader social grouping and social differentiation such as class, ethnicity, gender etc.

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Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver's model

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One-directional process. Message goes through information source (someone's voice) to a transmitter (a telephone) to a receiver (another person's telephone) and received by someone at its destination.

Noise source between transmitter and receiver is interference that might distort the message.

Semantic problem - recipient might misunderstand the message.

Effectiveness problem - message may not have desired impact on the recipient.

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Hypodermic needle

Back 5

Messages are automatically injected into the audiences' mind

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Harold Laswell's model

Back 6

"Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?"

sender-message-medium-recipient-effect

Who - Media industry

Says what - Media content

In which channel - media technologies

To whom - media users

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Bias

Back 7

One viewpoint has been privileged over another in the reporting of an event

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Technological Determinism

Back 8

Regarding technological features (of media) as having inevitable and predetermined social consequences.

Society's technology drives the development of its social structure and cultural values.

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Interactivity

Back 9

In regards to the internet, not only does it incorporate a range of interpersonal means of communication, it also has introduced the possibility of interactive mass communication.

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Mobility

Back 10

Cell phones allow us to communicate pretty much anywhere, at any time.

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Synchronous media

Back 11

Media that operates in real time

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Asynchronous media

Back 12

Media that does not operate in real time.

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Affordances (capacities and constraints)

Back 13

Mass media vs. interpersonal

One-directional vs. interactive

Synchronous vs. asynchronous

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Icons

Back 14

Signs for which there is a physical resemblance between signifier and signified (the sign and its object) e.g. words splash, crack are icons as they are iconic, it is the sound that is made when something falls in water or cracks.

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Indexes

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Prior association between them or a sensory or casual kind (e.g. smoke signify fire) - the culturally learned relationship between signifier and signified based on an existing association.

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Symbols

Back 16

Entirely arbitrary e.g. language is symbolic, not iconic or indexical. No logical connection between the appearance or sound of the words and the concepts to which they refer.

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Episodic

Back 17

depicting concrete events

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Thematic

Back 18

Presenting collective or general evidence

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Production

Back 19

Institutional and social circumstances in which a technology is developed, manufactured and distributed.

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Representation

Back 20

Media discourse about the technology. (Crucial role in developing particular understandings of its purpose and meaning.

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Regulation

Back 21

Forms of control imposed by the government which can restrict and shape the ways in which technology can be used.

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Consumption

Back 22

The importance of the contexts in which users engage technologies.

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Identity

Back 23

The way in which consumption practices are intricately connected with the development of individual and collective subjectivities.

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Framing

Back 24

Process whereby we organise reality. E.g. takin a photograph is framing a scene from your point of view, from your frame.

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Frame analysis

Back 25

When they try to unpick the processes through which a frame is presented.

E.g: How have journalists told the story and why did they tell the story in this way?

What alternative frames could have been used?

What are the consequences of presenting events 'framed' in one way rather than other?

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Agenda Setting

Back 26

McCombs and Shaw

Impact is not on people's attitudes but on their cognition's -> these cognitive changes being the result of the media performance.

Mass media is being 'pervasive but not persuasive'

The media tells us what is out there and gives us a list of what to think about and talk about.

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Intrapersonal

Back 27

Private consumption, to satisfy curiosity.

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Interpersonal

Back 28

To share with others or to show up others.

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Three operating characteristics of the media:

Ubiquity

Cumulation

Repetition

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Ubiquity - The pervasive presence of mass media, which are indiscriminately available to all citizens for information and entertainment - and personal gratification

Cumulation - The continuing treatment in the press of a topic, trend or theme. The favoured topics tend to dominate the attention of the audience.

Repetition - A frequently used rhetorical device of propaganda.

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Consonence

Back 30

The tendency of professional communicators to produce similar details, viewpoints, and emphases when reporting on an issue, event, or public person.

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Print

Back 31

Printing press was an agent of change. Its introduction lead to a mini industrial revolution.

People started learning the same language.

Telegraph ->connection to the capital which meant law was introduced in the outskirts)

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Radio

Back 32

Broadcasting played a major role between society and events...(propaganda)

Usage of Radio by dictators to spread their mass ideals.

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Television

Back 33

Empty spectacle argument - flow of pointless information -> people once sought information to manage real contexts of their lives, now they had to invent contexts in which otherwise useless information might be put into some apparent use

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Convergence

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The cooperation between multiple media industries

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Collective Intelligence

Back 35

None of us can know everything, each of us knows something and we can put the pieces together if we pool our resources and combine our skills.

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Delivery technologies

Back 36

Technologies that share a media e.g. CDs, MP3 files etc. are all technologies for the medium "recorded sound"

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Global village

Back 37

Our world has become like a village where information spreads very quickly.

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Semiology

Back 38

All communication is made up of signs.

A semiologist deciphers the ways in which different arrangements of signs generate meaning.

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Signifier

Back 39

The means of representation. E.g. a smile is a signifier for the signified happiness

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Signified

Back 40

A concept that is represented. E.g. a smile is a signifier for the signified happiness

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Denotation

Back 41

The most immediate level of meaning- the interpretation of what is represented at its most basic level- (the signified in its most immediate, literal sense). A photo of a model is seen as a photo of a model and basic things everyone connects to that.

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Connotation

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Second-order or 'associative' meanings. More likely to be cultural specific. Open to different possible meanings.

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Sign

Back 43

The duality of signifier and signified - the relationship between the two.

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Teo Relational axes:

1. Paradigmatic axis

2. Syntagmatic analysis

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1. Concerns the relationship of each individual signifier in a text with a set of alternative signifiers that could have been used instead. The set of alternatives is known as a paradigm.

2. Asks us to consider the ways in which the different signs present in a text interact with each other.

To understand why red was used rather than blue or yellow (paradigmatic), I need to take into account the context in which the colour appears (syntagmatic)

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Qualitative approaches

Back 45

Detailed analysis of the ways in which meaning is produced in a handful of examples

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Quantitative approaches

Back 46

Large-scale systematic approach in order to ascertain broader trends.

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Narrative analysis

Back 47

Treats media texts as diverse as films, adverts, as composed of different forms of storytelling and seeks to identify the conventions and devices with which such narratives are constructed.

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Genre analysis

Back 48

On the relationship of different texts to one another and the ways in which they are clustered into particular types or genres.

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Diverse analysis

Back 49

Concerned with the ways in which broader beliefs, world views and social structures are embedded in and reinforced in the use of verbal or written communication. Focusing on various elements of vocabulary, grammar and syntax, analysts ask questions about how the particular formulations used position the speaker and the audience, what they include, exclude and how they invite us to understand events, individuals, groups or identities

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Burden of representation

Back 50

Problem with stereotypes is that they select, exaggerate and disproportionately emphasise certain character types while systematically excluding a whole range of others.

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Tokenism

Back 51

A single 'token' black or ethnic minority character, presenter, or guest in order to give them the impression of being inclusive.

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Diaspora

Back 52

The dispersal around the globe of people who share a common point of origin

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Gender

Back 53

Gender is something that we do instead of something that we are.

Should be understood as a series of performances based on prevailing understandings of what it is to be male and female.

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Nationalism

Back 54

Functions to exclude those that do not qualify socially stigmatised groups and anyone who may threaten the tone of programming.

National identity is seen as a process of constant and consistent doing, performing and becoming over time and is embodied in everyday actions and flagged through performance that assumes the nation.

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Flagging

Back 55

The infrahumanization of the 'other'. Us vs. them, what we have, what we are vs. what they don't have, what they cannot be

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Elaboration likelihood model

Back 56

How likely a person is to think deeply (elaborate) about an ad, when exposed to it.

Motivated to process information?

No - Passive processing (mere exposure, soft-cell)

Yes , then are they able to process information?

No - Peripheral route (endorser, cues)

Yes - central route (strong arguments)

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Mere exposure

Back 57

The mere act of the repetitive exposure of a stimulus can lead to preference for it, even though consumers do not remember the exposure.

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Priming

Back 58

Exposure to a brand name during some entertaining or distracting event leads to better recall and preference for that name, even without recall of the exposure

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Soft-cell messages

Back 59

A subtle message that allows for different interpretations persuades by suggestion, and makes no direct request for action or change.

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Hard-cell messages

Back 60

direct requests to act accompanied with some pressure or urgency

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Subliminal advertising

Back 61

Persuasive ad messages that are just below the threshold of perception and are embedded in material that can be perceived.

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Repetition (2 kinds)

Back 62

The exposure of an ad to a subject two or more times in succession.

Minimalist - those who believe that a few exposures achieves the maximum response (2-3 times max)

Repetitionists - those who believe that advertising repetition is essential for optimal consumer response.

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Brand familiarity

Back 63

Consumers knowledge of, experience with, or loyalty to the advertised brand -> consumer response to a repetition of a brand's advertising differs substantially depending on the consumers prior familiarity to the brand.

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Pulsing

Back 64

Advertising at fixed intervals

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Flighting

Back 65

Advertising at irregular intervals

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Habituation-Tedium theory

Back 66

Suggests that response to ad repetitions is neither instantaneous nor perpetual.

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Ad persuasion

Back 67

Change in opinion, attitude or behaviour due to ad exposure

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Permanence

Back 68

The extent to which change caused by persuasion endures

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Resistance

Back 69

The extent to which the changes due to persuasion survive attacks based on new information.

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Uses and Gratification Theory

Back 70

"What people do with media" and not "what media does to people".

Media is audience-centered, everyone uses it as they want.

Media is not a disseminator of information and power, but rather a source of diversion and satisfaction for individual needs.

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Frame Theory

Back 71

Expands agenda setting theory.

The way in which information is presented to us primes us to respond in particular ways.

Media representations structure social meaning by setting agendas AND by structuring the terms of debate, setting them within particular fields of meaning.

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Two step flow

Back 72

Lazarfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (1944)

Mass media is filtered through opinion leaders, their selection reaches individuals in contact with opinion leader/rest of population.

Emphasises the role of personal influence in changing human attitudes and behaviours.

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Gatekeeping

Back 73

Information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting or any other mode of communication.

The filtered info goes through to the public through radio, tv etc.

Determines not only which information is selected, but also what the content and nature of the message, such as news, will be.

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Agitative propaganda

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Incites significant change through mobilising a mass audience

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Integrative propaganda

Back 75

Attempts to render an audience passive, accepting, and non-challenging.

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White propaganda

Back 76

Identifiable source, accurate information

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Gray propaganda

Back 77

Source may or may not be identified, accuracy is uncertain

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Black propaganda

Back 78

The big lie, concealed or false source, spreads lies.