Mcb 150

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Characteristics of Living Organisms:

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• Consist of one or more cells
• Contain genetic information
• Use genetic information to reproduce
• Are genetically related and have evolved
• Con convert molecules obtained from their environment into new biological molecules
• Can extract energy from the environment and use it to do biological work
• Can regulate their internal environment

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Cell theory

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• Cells are the basic structural and physiological units of all living organisms.
• Cells are both distinct entities and building blocks of more complex organisms.
• All cells come form preexisting cells.
• All cells are similar in chemical composition.
• Complete sets of genetic information are replicated and passed on during cell division.

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Genome

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the total sum of all the DNA molecules

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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molecules are long sequences of four different subunits called nucleotides

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Genes

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A unit of heredity. Used here as the unit of genetic function which carries the information for a single polypeptide or RNA.

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Proteins

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make up much of an organism’s structure and are the molecules that govern the chemical reactions within cells.

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Prokaryotes

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Organisms whose genetic material in not contained within a nucleus: the bacteria and archaea

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Metabolism

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The sum total of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism.

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Organelles

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Organized structure found in or on eukaryotic cells.

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Eukaryotes

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Organisms whose cells contain their genetic material inside a nucleus

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Surface area-to-volume ratio

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As an object increases in volume, its surface area also increase, but not to the same extent.
• The volume of a cell determines the amount of chemical activity it carries out per unit of time.
• The surface area of a cell determines the amount of substances the cell can take in from the outside environment and the amount of waste products it can release to the environment.

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Resolution

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Of an optical device such as a microscope, the smallest distance between two lines that allows the lines to be seen as separate from one another

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Plasma Membrane

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The membrane that surrounds the cell, regulating the entry and exit of molecules and ions

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Nucleotide

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contains the hereditary material (DNA) of the cell.

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Cytoplasm

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The rest of the material enclosed in the plasma membrane.

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Cytosol

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consists mostly of water that contains dissolved ions, small molecules, and soluble macromolecules such as proteins.

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Ribosomes

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are complexes of RNA and proteins about 25nm in diameter. They are the sites of protein synthesis.

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Nucleus

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contains most of the cell’s genetic material (DNA).

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mitochondrion

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a power plant and industrial park, where energy is stored in the bonds of carbohydrates and fatty acids is converted into a form more useful to the cell (ATP).

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endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

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are compartments in which some proteins synthesized by ribosomes are packaged and sent to appropriate locations in the cell.

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Lysosomes and Vacuoles

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are cellular digestive systems in which large molecules are hydrolyzed into unable monomers.

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Choroplasts

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(plant cells) perform photosynthesis

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Carbohydrates

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molecules containing carbon atoms flanked by hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups.

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Carbohydrate Roles:

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They have two major biochemical roles: 1. Carbohydrates are a source of energy that can be released in a form usable by blood tissues. 2.Carbohydrates serve as carbon skeletons that can be rearranged to form new molecules that are essential for biological structures and functions.

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Monosaccharide

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(mono “one”, saccharide “sugar”)such as glucose, ribose, and fructose, they are the monomers form which the larger carbohydrates are constructed.

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Disaccharides

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(di “two”) consist of two monosaccharides linked together by covalent bonds.

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Oligosaccharides

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oligo “several”) are made up of several monosaccharides.

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Polysaccharides

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(poly “many”) such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose are large polymers composed of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides.

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Glucose

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all living things contain the monosaccharide.

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Hexoses

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(six)- all have the formation C6H12O6 including glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose.

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Pentoses

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(five)- five-carbon sugar including ribose and deoxyribose.

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Glycosidic Linkages

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monosaccharide that are covalently bonded together by condensation reactions.

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Lipids

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Hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water because of their many nonploar covalent bonds.

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Fats

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triglycerides that are solid at room temperature.

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Oils

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triglycerides that are liquid at room temperature.

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Ester Linkage

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A condensation reaction in which the carboxyl group of a fatty acid reacts with the hydroxyl group of an alcohol. Lipids are formed this way.

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Saturated

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all the bonds between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds-there are no double bonds.

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Unsaturated

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the hydrocarbon chain contains one or more double bonds.

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Phospholipids

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Lipids containing a phosphate group and fatty acids bound to glycerol by ester linkages.

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Bilayer

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a sheet two molecule thick, with water excluded from the core.

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Vitamins

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small molecule that are not synthesized by the human body so must be acquired from the diet.

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Peptide Bond

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The carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another, undergoing a condensation reaction.

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Primary Structure

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The precise sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

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Secondary Structure

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Consists of regular, repeated spacial patterns in different regions of a polypeptide chain.

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Two types of Secondary Stucture

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#1. The alpha helix is a right-handed coil resulting from H-bonds that from between the g+ of the N-H of one amino acid and the g- of the C=O of another.
#2. Beta Pleated Sheet is formed from two or more polypeptide chains that are almost completely extended and aligned. The sheet is stabilized by H-bonds between the N-H groups on one chain and the C=O groups.

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Tertiary Structure

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Polypeptides fold, forming specific shapes. Folds are stabilized by H-bonds and disulfide bridges.

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Quaternary Structure

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Two or more polypeptide assemble to form larger protein molecules.

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Ligand

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The specific shape and structure of a protein allows it to bind non-covalently to another molecule.

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Denaturation

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The loss of a proteins normal 3-D structure by and increase in temperature, alterations in pH, or high concentrations of polar substances.

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Chaperonins

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Help proteins fold correctly.

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Fluid Mosaic Model

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The general design of a lipid bilayer.

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Freeze-Fracturing

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a special preparation method for electron microscopy.

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Transmembrane Proteins

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Integral membrane proteins that protrude on both sides of the membrane.

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Glycolipids

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Consists of a carbohydrate covalently bonded to a lipid.

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Glycoprotien

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Consists of a carbohydrate covalently bonded to a protein.

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Fluidity

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Low Temperature:
High Cholesterol=high fluidity
Low Cholesterol= low fluidity

High Temperature
High Cholesterol=low fluidity
Low Cholesterol= high fluidity

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Induced Fit

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A change in enzyme shape caused by substrate binding.

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Homeostasis

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the maintenance of stable internal conditions.

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Inhibitors

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Inhibitors can bind to enzymes, slowing down the rates of enzyme catalyzed reactions.

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Irreversible Inhibition

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Some inhibitors covalently bond to certain side chains at the active site of an enzyme, thereby permanently inactivating the enzyme by destroying its capacity to interact with its normal substrate.

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Reversible Inhibition

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A reversible inhibitor binds to an enzyme's active site non-covalently.

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Two types of Reversible Inhibition

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Competitive Inhibitors: Compete with the natural substrate for the active site.
Noncompetitive Inhibitors: Bind to the enzyme at a site distinct form the active site.

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Allosteric Site

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Non-Competitive Inhibitors binds to a place other than the active site therefore changing the shape of the enzyme.

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Glycolysis

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begins glucose metabolism in all cells and produces two molecules of the three-carbon product pyruvate. A small amount of the energy stored in glucose is captured in usable forms. Glycolysis does NOT use O2.

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Cellular Respiration

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Uses O2 from the environment and completely converts each pyruvate molecule into 3 molecules of CO2.In this process a great deal of energy is stored in the covalent bonds of pyruvate is released and transferred to ADP and ATP.

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Fermentation

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does not involve O2. Fermentation converts pyruvate into lactic acid or ethyl alcohol. Much less energy is released by fermentation than cellular respiration.

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Pyruvate

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A 3 carbon acid; the end product of glycolysis and the raw material for the citric acid cycle.

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What are the three metabolic processes in the harvesting of energy from glucose:

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-Glycolysis
-Cellular Respiration
-Fermentation

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The type of energy-harvesting processes in cells in the presence of O2.

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When O2 is available as the final electron acceptor, four pathways operate.
#1. Glycolsis takes place first and is followed by the three pathways of cellular respiration: pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.

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The type of energy-harvesting processes in cells in the absences of O2.

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When O2 is unavailable, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain do not function, and the pyruvate produced by glycolysis is further metabolized by fermentation.

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Reduction

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Is the gain of one or more electrons by an atom, ion, or molecule. (H+)

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Oxidation

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Is the loss of one or more electrons. (H+)

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Oxidation and Reduction...

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always occur together.

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Oxidizing Agent

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The reactant that becomes reduced.

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Reducing Agent

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The reactant that becomes oxidized.

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Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)

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The coenzyme NAD is a key electron carrier in redox reactions.

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What are the two chemically different forms of NAD?

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-Oxidized (NAD+)
NADH + H+ + 1/2 O2> NAD+ + H2O
-Reduced (NADH + H+)
NAD+ + 2H > NADH + H+

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Complex chemical transformation in the cell occur in...

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a series of separate reactions that form a metabolic pathway.

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Each reaction in a metabolic pathway is catalyzed by...

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specific enzyme.

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Are metabolic pathways similar in all organisms?

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Yes, they are similar from bacteria to humans.

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What are the two stages of Glycolysis?

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#1. Energy-investing reactions that use ATP.
#2. Energy-harvesting reaction that produce ATP.

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Are the first five reactions of glycolysis endergonic or exergonic.

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Endergonic