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101 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Traits of All Living Cells
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- Able to Grow and Reproduce
(can convert nonliving nutrients into living cytoplasm) - Genetic material is DNA - Metabolism (hundreds of controlled biochemical reactions that are catalyzed by enzymes) - Able to make or acquire ATP (an energy rich molecule) - Able to synthesize proteins (This requires: energy from ATP, ribosomes, mRNA, a set of tRNAs and 20 amino acids.) - Bound by an active cell membrane (a diffusion barrier) |
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Virus Traits - how do they differ from baceriophages/
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- Viruses differ from bacteria in that they are not cellular organisms
- Virusus consist of some genetic material - either DNA or RNA - Surrounded by a coat of protein - CAPSID. - Some animal viruses also have a membrane like envelope of lipids and proteins... but many viruses lack this feature. - Viruses lack ribosomes and tRNA's, so tehy can not synthesize proteins on their own. - Viruses contain few or no enzymes - lack metabolic pathways - Viruses lack ATP, no means of generating ATP - Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites... they must be inside a living hose cell in order to have life-like functions such as reproduction. Outside a host cell- a virus is a non living molecule. |
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Major Groups of Microorganisms
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Viruses
Archea Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Algae |
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Have a Cell Wall
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Most Bacteria
Archea Plants Fungi Algae |
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Lack a Cell Wall
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Mycoplasma
Animals Protozoa |
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Lack a Cell Wall
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Mycoplasma
Animals Protozoa |
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Cell Membrane
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- Lipid bilayer
- Embedded Proteins, act as a diffusion barrier around cell - Semipermiable - allowing some things to pass, while others cannot |
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Cell Wall
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- Net-like bag of polysaccharides
- Maintains a specific shape - Protects cell from osmotic lysis - Not a barrier to diffusion of small molecules |
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Prokaryotes (2)
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Bacteria
Archaea |
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Eukaryotes, traits:
Nuclear Membrane ER Mitochondria Membrane bound organelles Ribosome Size Chromosome Number Chromosome Shape Mitosis, Meosis, and Sex Size |
Nuclear Mem: Yes
ER: Yes Mitochon: Yes Membrane bound organelles: often yes Ribosome Size: 80 S Chromosome #: Plural Chromosome Shape: Linear Mitosis, Meiosis, Sex: Mostly Yes Size: Mostly 4-20 nano meters |
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Prokaryotes, traits:
Nuclear Membrane ER Mitochondria Membrane bound organelles Ribosome Size Chromosome Number Chromosome Shape Mitosis, Meosis, and Sex Size |
Nuclear Membrane: No
ER: No Mitochondria: No Membrane bound organelles: No Ribosome Size: 70 S Chromosome Number: Single Chromosome Shape: Circular Mitosis, Meosis, and Sex: No Size: Mostly 0.5 - 3 Nanometers |
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Fungi
-- Euk/Pro? -- Wall?...etc |
- Eukaryotic Cells
- Cell wall composed of chitin - Not photosynthetic - Nutrient molecules absorbed by osmosis -- Both sexual and asexual -- Most have mitochondria -- Most prefer aerobic conditions --- YEAST AND MOLD-- |
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Protozoa
--Euk/Pro? --Photosynth? --Cell wall? --How get nutrients? --Sex? Asexual? -- |
- Euk
- No cell wall - Not photosynth - Some absorb ntrient molecules by osmosis---others engulf food particles by phagocytosis - Both sexual and asexual reproduction - Most have mitochondria - Most prefer aerobic conditions |
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Algae
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- Eukaryotic Cells
- Most have cell walls composed of cellulose - Photosythetic - both sexual and asex - most have mitochondria - most prefer aerobic conditions - produce oxygen and fix co2 |
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Bacteria
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- Prokaryotic Cells
- Most have cell walls composed of peptidoglycan - Some are photosynthetic, most are not - Some can fix nitrogen - wide variety of metabolic lifestyles - lack true sexual reproduction - many excrete enzymes to digest complex molecules - some cause human disease |
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Archea
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- Prokaryotic Cells
-Cell walls composed of protein or pseudopeptidoglycan - Wide variety of metabolic lifestyles - Some produce methane - Some are extremophiles - Lack true sexual reproduction - Do not excrete enzyems to digest complex molecules - Do not cause human disease - RNA polymerase is similar to eukaryotic enzymes |
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Viruses
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- Not cellular
- Smaller than the smallest known cells - Lack an active cell membrane - Lack ribosomes, etc for protein synthesis - Lack ATP generating metabolism - Must be inside a host cell to reproduce - Genetic material can be DNA or RNA, ss or ds. |
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Viroids
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Infectious particles seen in plants, similar to RNA viruses, except they lack a capsid.
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Prions
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Infectious particles that lack nucleic acid, they are altered forms of normal proteins that appear to be able to convert normal proteins to abnormal shape upon contact, the abnormal form of protein is associated with disease.
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Microbes are found wherever there is...
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- liquid water
- energy source - carbon |
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Spontaneous Generation
*Origin |
Aristotle- concluded living creatures can arise in three ways - sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction, and spontaneous appearance from non-living matter. Based on the mysterious appearance of animals or plants in cases where the egg or cyst or seed wasn't obvious and had gone undetected.
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1668 Francesco Redi
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Demonstrates fallacies in theory of spontaneous generation.
--Showed maggots don't appear spontaneously in meat. Complex animals don't arise due to spontaneous generation. |
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1676 Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
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--Observed bacteria and protozoans using a simple microscope of his own construction.
----> Discovery of microorganisms revived the spontaneous generation debate. |
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1776 Lazzaro Spallanzani
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Conducted more experiments that seemed to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation.
--> Repeated Needham's experiments, more careful and avoided contamination of broths by airborne bacteria. |
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1861 Louis Pasteur
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Kills of idea of spontaneous generation by showing that bacteria do not just appear in sterilized media.
Goose necked flasks kept the broth dust free but allowed for diffusion of oxygen. This conviced everyone that bacteria don't just appear over night--therefore microbes have parents and DOCTORS SHOULD WASH THEIR HANDS! |
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1876 Robert Koch
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Showed anthrax is caused by a specific microorganism -- which he calls Bacillus anthracis.
--- invented simple stain and photomicrography -- invented pure culture techniques for identifying bacteria. ***FATHER OF MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY PROCEDURES*** Able to identify harmless microorganisms from pathogenic ones. |
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1546 Girolamo Fracostoro
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- Suggests that invisible organisms may be involved in causing disease.
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1847 Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis
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- Institutes handwashing in a hospital... statistics that showed procedure saed lives but it was unpopular with the students bc the crude disinfectant he used was toxic
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1867 Joseph Lister
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Publishes first work on antiseptic surgery.
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1908 Erlich
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Discovers compound that could be used to treat syphillis
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1929 Alexander Fleming
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Discovers penicillin
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Study of Fermentation
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In the 1800's fermentation used as main way of alcohol production. and acids from sugars, the decomposition of wastes or purification of meat/dairy products.
Pasteur and other microbiologists learned that yeasts are needed to make alcohol - bacteria usually produce acidic products |
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Pasteur invented....
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Pasteurization - the use of heat to kill undesireable microorganisms in beverages.
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1789 Jenner
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Developed vaccination to give people immunity to smallpox
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1885 Pasteur
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Developed rabies vaccine
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1847 Sammelweis
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handwashing to stop spread disease of puerperal fever
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1855 Nightingale
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Antiseptic nursing practices in military hospitals
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1867 Lister
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Antiseptic practices in surgery
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1876 Koch
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Showed anthrax in cattle was caused by Bacillus anthracis
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Four Eras of Microbiology
1. Traditional Practices 2. The "Golden Age" of microbiology 3. "Classical age" 4. Biotechnology Era |
1) Traditional Practices – Ancient Times
Making products using microorganisms without any knowledge of the existence of microorganisms. Examples: beer, wine and cheese production 2) The “Golden Age” of Microbiology – Late 1800s Pasteur, Buchner, Koch, Lister, Erlich and others discover the role of microorganisms in fermentation and infectious diseases and develop techniques to control microorganisms. 3) The “Classical Age” of Microbiology – Early 1900s Fleming, Florey, Waksman, Salk, Weizmann and others develop methods to produce antibiotics, enzymes, vaccines and organic solvents using natural strains of microorganisms. 4) The Biotechnology Era – Late 1900s to Present Recombinant DNA technology is used to create new strains of microorganisms that can produce desirable products. |
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Living matter contains...
CARBON --What type of bonds? -- How many elements make up living matter? |
- Atoms in organic molecules held together by covalent bonds.
- Living organisms are mostly made of about 20 different elements - |
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What 6 elements make up most of organic mass in compounds?
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C H O N P S
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What makes up living matter and long complicated molecules?
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Lipids, carbohydrates, large complicated molecules
AKA: Biological Macromomolecules |
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Ionic Bonds
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Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in a charge imbalance in both atoms. The atom that looses the electron becomes a positively charged ion, also called a cation
The atom that gains an electron becomes a negatively charged ion. Ions with opposite charges are attracted to each other but don't necessarily remain in physical contact with each other. |
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Covalent Bonds
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Formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons - The atoms must touch eachother to share a pair of electrons
- Electrons in a shared pair travel around in a complicated orbit that takes them around both of the nuclei of the chemically bonded atoms. A dbl bond forms when two atoms share two pairs, and a triple bond forms when two atoms share three pairs of electrons. |
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Elements: C, N, O, H
# of valence electrons, # of covalent bonds |
C: electrons - 4, Bonds - 4
N: electrons - 5, Bonds 3 O: electrons 6, Bonds 2 H: electrons 1, Bonds 1 |
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Group: Hyroxyl (alcohol)
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R - O - H
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Amino
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H
/ R - N \ H Basic: can act as a proton acceptor |
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Aldehyde
(terminal carbonyl) |
O
// R - C - H |
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Ketone
(internal carbonyl) |
O
// R - C - R' -one; found in some sugars |
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Carboxylic Acid
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O
// R - C - O - H -ic acid; acidic acts as a proton donor |
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Sulfhydryl
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R - S - H
nonpolar |
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Organic Phosphate
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O
// R - O - P - O / O seen in nucleic acids |
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Non polar covalent bond
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Forms when two atoms share a pair of electrons equally, both end up with no net charge
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Polar Covalent Bond
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Two atoms share a air of electrons unequally, one of them ends up with a negative charge while the other ends up with a slight positive charge.
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Electronegativity
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The factor that determines whether a pair of electrons will be shared equally or unequally
Measure of affinity of an atom for valence electrons |
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Hydrogen Bonds
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Weak, non-covalent bonds
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Hydrocarbons do not have a strong affinity to stick together....
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There isn't much difference in the electronegativity of hydrogen and carbon so the bonds in hydrocarbons have little polarity... hydrocarbon do not tend to form hydrogen bonds with other compounds.
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Hydrocarbons and oils are....
(polar, or nonpolar) What do they dissolve? |
Nonpolar
Since oils are non polar... they dissolve long chain alkyl groups |
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Water is....
(polar/non-polar) What does it dissolve? |
Water is polar, it dissolves molecules with polar groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylates and amines.
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Proteins are made up of what types of bonding groups?
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Proteins can be thought of massive collections of organic functional groups. Some of these groups are polar, and thus hydrophilic.... some are nonpolar and hydrophobic (oily)
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Describe the surface of a globlular protein
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Covered with organic functional groups that are arranged in specific 3-dimensional pattern. Each type of protein is different in the details of the arrangements of the functional groups.
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What type of bond is responsible for maintaining orderand structure in a cell?
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Noncovalent attraction
--> proteins that do not have a complimentary structure do not stick together in a specific fashion |
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Examples of proteins binding together
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- Regulatory protein binds to a specific sequence of DNA causing the gene to be turned on.
- Two alpha subunits and two beta subunits combine to make a molecule of hemoglobin - Phospholipids that make up a cell membrane associate with one another to make a sheet-like structure. - Antibody molecules attach to viral surface proteins - Epithelial cells stick to each other to form a tissue layer because of specific surface proteins called cadherins |
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Definition of Proteins
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Large, globlular molecules, many different functions
Some proteins are found in cytoplasm and others are embedded in cell membranes |
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Functions of Proteins
***function dependent upon..... |
- Some act as part of the structure of the cell.
- Many act as enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions. - Others transport substances thru cell membrane - Some regulate expression of genes or control other cell functions ***Function dependant upon solubility, shape, and three dimensional arrangement of organic functional groups on its surface |
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Typical proteins consist of how many AA's?
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200-400
Some are smaller than this and others are larger... key factor that determines structure and ultimately the function of an enzyme is the sequence of AA found in the protein |
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Structure of an AA
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All amino acids contain nitrogen in the form of an amino group.
They also always have a carboxylic acid group. |
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'R' Group of an AA
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There are 20 different AA's used in proteins
All AA's have same basic shape, only differ in R group For some AA, R is large, others R is small, R is polar, and easily dissolves in water... others R is hydrophobic.... R can be positively or negatively charged .... for some AA's R is not charged |
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Sulfur containing AA's
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Methionine
Cysteine |
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Polar
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Serine
Threonine Asparagine Glutamine |
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Acidic AA
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Aspartic
Glutamic Acid |
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Basic
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Lysine
Histidine Argnine |
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Non Polar (hydrophobic)
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Alanine
Leucine Isoleucine Valine Proline Glycine |
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Aromatic
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Phenylalanine
Tyrosine Tryptophan |
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Formation of a Peptide Bond
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- Requires free carboxylic acid group and a free amino group
- Molecule of water produced when the two AA's are joined - Note how the peptide has a free AA group and a free carboxylic group |
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Oligopeptide
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Since each AA has an amino group and a carboxyl group, a linear chain of great length can be made.
Oligopeptide is a pentapeptide ---most proteins are chains of 100-1000 AA |
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Primary Structure Protein
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- Sequence of amino acids in the chain
- Determined by the genetic information encoded in the mRNA - Determines the final shape and function of the protein |
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Secondary Structure of Protein
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- Local folding of a protein chain
- Alpha helix and Beta sheet are common motifs - Stabalized by interactions between backbone groups that are fairly close to each other in the primary sequence |
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Tertiary Structure
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- Final folding of a single protein chain to its globular form
- Stabilized by interactions between groups on side chains that may be far apart in the primary sequence but close together in the final 3D shape. |
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Quaternary Structure
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- The noncovalent attraction of two or more seperate protein chains to form a functional unit.
- Stabilized by interactions between groups on side chains that may be far apart in primary sequence - but close together in final 3D shape |
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Simple Sugars
Formula and facts |
Simple sugars have general formula
(CH2O)n A certain number of carbon atoms with an equal number of water molecules worth of hydrogen and oxygen. Hence sugars are called carbohydrates Glucose (or dextrose) - classical example of a carb w/ formula C6H12O6 |
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Cellubiose Synthesis
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Glucose + Glucose = Cellobiose + Water
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Sugars are attched to eachother by what type of bond?
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Glycosidic Bonds
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Polysaccharides
- Are what? - What are they used to make? |
Polysach's are made by joining many sugars.
Polysach's are important components of cell walls, used to make slimy substances |
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Breaking down of a polysaccharide produces what? What does it consume?
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- Produces energy
- Consumes water |
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Hydrolysis = ?
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Breakdown of starch or other biological polymers - consumption of H2O
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Nucleic Acids = ?
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Nucleic Acids are polymers of nucleotides
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DNA
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A double stranded molecule that can be up to 100 million base pairs long.
- A chromosome contains a single large molecule of DNA - A chromosome can carry enough information to encode thousands of genes |
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RNA
mRNA tRNA |
mRNA: carries genetic information to direct synthesis of 1 - a few proteins
rRNA: part of a structure of the ribosome which makes new |
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Nucleotides
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dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and ddTTP precursors of DNA synthesis
ATP, CTP, UTP, and GTP are precursors of RNA synthesis and are also energy rich molecules that are used to assist in pushing biosynthetic reactions |
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Each nucleotide consists of three parts... what are they?
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- A five carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose)
- A nitrogen containing base (attached to C-1 of the sugar) - One or more phosphate groups (attached to C-5 of the sugar) |
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Nucleotide examples:
dCMP |
deoxycytosine monophosphate: there is one phosphate the sugar is deoxyribose (-H instead of an -OH at position 2), the nitrogenous base = cytosine
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Examples of nucleotides:
ATP |
Adenosine triphosphate
Base = Adenine Sugar = Ribose (-OH at C2 and C3) Has 3 Phosphate groups |
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How many hydrogen bonds between...
A-T G-C |
A&T = 2 hydrogen bonds
C&G = 3 hydrogen bonds |
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Differences between DNA and RNA
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Deoxyribose lacks an oxygen on Carbon 2.
Thymine has a methyl group on C5, Uracil does not. |
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Phospholipid Synthesis
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phosphate + glycerol = 2 fatty acids
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Bonds That Join Biological Polymers
Ester |
- Joins a carboxylic acid to make an alcohol -- sen in the attachment of fatty acids to glycerol to make fats and lipids
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Bonds That Join Biological Polymers
Amide (peptide) |
- Joins a carboxylic acid to an amino group, seen in the union of amino acids to form proteins
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Bonds That Join Biological Polymers
Phosphoester and Phosphodiester |
- Joins a phosphoric acid group to an alcohol, seen in nucleic acids
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Bonds That Join Biological Polymers
Glycosidic |
- Joins a hemiacetal group on a cyclized sugar to an alcohol - seen in the joining of sugars to form disaccharides and polysacharides
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