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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is a Solution?
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It is an homogenous mixture os two or more compounds in a single phase, such as liquid, solid, or gas.
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Brass contains what?
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Zinc and Copper
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What is the Solvent? What is Solute?
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THe coupound in a solution in which there is more of.
The compund in which there is less of in a solution |
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What is a colloid?
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It is like a solution, only the SOLUTE particles are larger.
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What dissolves what?
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LIke Dissolves Like
Polar sovents dissolve polar solutes Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes |
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How are Nonpolar molecules held together?
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By weak intermolecular bonds resulting from instantaneous dipole moments
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES |
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How does a polar solute interact with a polar solvent?
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They tear the solvent-solvent bonds apart and forming solute-solvent bonds
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What is SOLVATION?
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It is the breaking apart of POLAR substances. Water is the best way to break apart ionic compounds.
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What is HYDRATION
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It is the breaking apart of ionic bonds by the sorounding of water molecules.
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When is water a good conductor of electricity?
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When it contains electrolytes
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NO2-
NO3- SO3-2 SO4-2 ClO- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4- |
Nitrite
Nitrate Sulfite Sulfate Hypochlorite Chlorite Chlorate Perchlorate |
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Molarity
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M= Moles of Solute
------------------- Volume of Solution |
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Molality
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m= Moles of Solute
------------------ Kilograms of solvent |
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Mole Fraction
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x= Moles of solute
------------------- total moles of all solutes and solvent |
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Mass %
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Mass%= Mass of Solute
----------------- X 100 total mass solution |
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ppm
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ppm= mass of solute
----------------- X 10^6 total mass solution |
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What are the 3 steps to solution formation?
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1) breaking of intermolecular bonds between solute molecules
2) breaking of the intermolecular bonds between solvent molecules 3) formation of intermolecular bonds between the solvent and the solute molecules |
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Is solute+solvent an endothermic or exothermic reaction?
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Endothermic because it requires energy to break apart the bonds
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When the solution is formed is it exothermic or endothermic? Why?
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It is exothermic because solute-solvent bonds are formed which are much more stable
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What is vapor pressure of a liquid?
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It is when the rate of molecules leaving a liquid equals the rate of molecules entering a liquid , thus the pressure created by the molecules in the open space is called vapor pressure
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Does vapor pressure increase with temperature?
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Yes
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When does a compound boil?
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When vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure
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When does a compound melt?
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Melting occurs when the vapor pressure of the solid phase equals the vapor pressure of the liquid phase.
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What is Raoult's Law?
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Pv=XaPa
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What does Raoults law tell us about NONVOLATILE solutes?
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If 97% of the solution is solvent, then the vapor pressure will be 97% of the vapor pressure of the pure solvent
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Raoult's law for volatile solutes says what?
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If 97% of the solution is solvent, then the vapor pressure will be 97% of the vapor pressure of the pure solvent + 3% of the vapor pressure of the pure solute.
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What does a positive heat of solution do? A Negative?
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A positive heat of solution leads to an increase in vapor pressure, and a negative heat of solution leads to a decrease in vapor pressure.
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What is a saturated solution?
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It is when the rate of dissolution and precipitation are equal
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How do you find the Solubility Product?
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Ksp. You first need to balance the reaction and put it in the correct form. Ksp=[Ba2+][F-]2
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Is solubility and solubility product the same thing? Why? What is Solubility?
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Solubility product is found in a book. Solubility is the maximum number of moles of the solute that can dissolve in solution.
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What does the Mass number include?
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The number of Protons and Neutrons
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What does the Atomic Number include?
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The number of Protons
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What is an isotope?
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It is the variances of the different number of neutrons
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How many Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons does C14 have?
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6 Protons
8 Neutrons 6 Electrons |
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How do you find the number of Moles
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Moles= grams/atomic or molecular weight
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Metals tend to have what charge on their surface? Why?
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They tend to have + charges because they tend to loose there electrons very easily. High Melting points.
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What are nonmetals? (3 things)
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They have lower melting points, form negative ions, and will form COVALENT bonds more than IONIC bonds
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IA
IIA VIIA VIIIA |
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals Halogens Noble Gases/Inert |
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What charge do Alkaline metals take on? What about Alkali metals?
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Alkaline +2
Alkali +1 |
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How many bonds can 5A elements form? What is the exception?
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5
Exception is Nitrogen |
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In what case is it more likely for an element to form Pi bonds, a larger element or a smaller Element? Why?
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A smaller element because Nitrogen forms great Pi bonds because it is small. The larger the atom the weaker the Pi bond
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Will metals form Anions or Cations? Why?
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Metals will form Cations because it wants to get to its lowest energy state and it does this by loosing electrons to get to its noble gas state
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Will nonmetals form cations or anions? Why?
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Anion because it wants to gain electrons.
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If Na+ loses an Electron will it become smaller or bigger than Fluorine?
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Small because they have an equal amount of electrons but Na has one more proton. When you have more protons acting on electrons it tends to make the molecule smaller.
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Shielding
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The more electrons that are in an atom the more shielding there will be due to the crowding of the nucleus.
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Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
Also equation? |
This is the amount of charge actually felt by the farthest electron from the nucleus
Zeff= Avg Charge-#electrons |
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Ionization Energy
What is the Periodic trend |
The energy required to pull an electron from an atom.
Left-->Right Bottom-->Top |
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First Ionization Energy
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The energy required to pull the first electron from the nucleus
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Second Ionization Energy
Is it greater than 1st Ionization energy and why? |
The energy required to pull the second electron from the nucleus. This is always greater than the 1st Ionization Energy bc of more Zeff
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Electronegativity
What is the Periodic Trend? |
Tendency of an atom to attract an electron in a covalent bond.
Left-->Right Bottom-->Top |
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Electron Affinity
What is the Periodic Trend? |
Willingness of an atom to accept an additional electron
Left-->Right Bottom-->Top |
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Metallic Character Trend
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Right-->Left
Top-->Bottom |
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Empirical Formula
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The simplest ratio of molecules in a compound
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What is Molecular Formula
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The actual formula for the molecule.
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Combination
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A+B---->C
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Docomposition
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C---->A+B
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Single Displacement
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A+BC---->B+AC
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Double Displacement
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AB+CD---->AD+CB
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What happens to the melting point if there is Impurity?
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The melting point will go down greatly
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Principle Quantum Number (n)
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designates the Shell
This is determined by the PERIOD NUMBER |
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How is the Principle Quantum Number of a transition metal found?
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Look at the period number it is in and subtract by 1
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How are lanthanides and actinides Principle Quantum Numbers found?
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Look at the period number and subtract by 2
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Azimuthal Quantum Number (I)
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This is the Subshell (SHAPE)
S=0 P=1 D=2 F=3 |
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How do you determine the Azimuthal Quantum number if given the Principle Quantum Number?
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You simply subtract the Principle Quantum number (N) by one
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Magnetic Quantum Number
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This gives the orbital
S=0 P=-1,0,1 D=-2-2 F=-3-3 |
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Electron Spin
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+1/2 or -1/2
Will always have opposite spins if in the same orbital |
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Pauli Exclusion Principle
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No two electrons can have the same 4 quantum numbers because they will always have opposite spins even if they are in the same orbit.
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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
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It is impossible to predict the position of a particle and its momentum
The more you know about position the less you know about momentum |
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Aufbau Principle
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When a proton is added an electron is also added to the lowest subshell
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Fluorescence
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When an electron goes from a higher orbital to a lower orbital energy is released. It can be seen as visable light
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Hunds Rule
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You must fill every orbital in the orbital before you add a pair of electrons to an orbital.
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Planks Quantum Theory
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Electromagnetic energy is quantized meaning it comes only in discrete units related to the wave frequency
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What is Planks Constant
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6.6 X 10^-34
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STP
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0 degrees Celcius
1 atm Pressure |
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Mean Free Path
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The distance traveled by a gas molecule in between a collision
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Is Hot air more dense or less dense than Cold air?
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Hot air is less dense that is why hot air rises.
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Ideal Gas (4 Things)
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Have zero volume
Exert no force but repulsive forces when gases collide KE is conserved in a collision The KEavg is proportional to the Temp |
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An ideal gas follows what?
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PV=nRT
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What is R (universal gas constant in PV=nRT)?
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R=.08206 or 8.324
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Charles Law
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The volume of a gas is proportional to temperature at constant pressure
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Boyles Law
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The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure at constant temperature
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Avogadro's Law
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The volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles at constant temperature and pressure
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At STP what does 1 mole of gas occupy?
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Standard Molar Volume of 22.4 L
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Partial Pressure Equation
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Pa=XPtotal
If two gases are mixed in a container together they will contribute to pressure solely based upon their mole fraction. |
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Daltons Law
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Says that the total pressure in a container is just the sum of the gas molecules partial pressure in the container
Ptot=P1+P2+P3 |
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Average Translational Kinetic Energy
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K.E.avg=3/2 R T
R=.08206 or 8.314 |
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Grahams Law
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State that the lighter the gas the faster it will move.
V1 M2 ---= ---- V2 M1 The M's have square roots on them |
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Effusion of a gas
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Is the spreading of a gas through a pinhole
Effusion Rate 1 M2 ------------------ = ----- Effusion Rate 2 M1 |
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Diffusion
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The spreading of one gas into another gas or into an empty space. Heavier compounds will not travel as long a distance as a lighter compound.
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Do real gases have a higher volume and pressure than ideal gases? Why?
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Real gases have atractive forces that pull them away from the wall of the container thus maintaining the same volume but less pressure
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What is Activation Energy
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Energy required to make a reaction proceed
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In order for a reaction to take place what two things must be true?
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Must reach an activation energy
Must have the correct spatial orientation |
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What does the rate law give us? (The slow step or the fast step)
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The slow Step. KNOW PAGE 33 and 34
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Catalyst
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Increases the rate of the reaction without being consumed or permanently altered. They lower the activation energy for a reaction
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Heterogeneous Catalyst
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in a different phase than the reactants and products. They are usually solid while the reactants and products are usually gases or liquids
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How do you improve a heterogenous catalyst?
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Increase the surface area of a catalyst
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Homogenous Catalyst
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Is in the same phase as the reactants and products.
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Effect of Solvent on Rate
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Heat must be applied to increase the reaction but other than that both gas and liquid will have the same speed of reaction
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What is the net reaction rate when we are at equilibrium?
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0 because the rate of the forward and the reverse reactions are equal
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What is equilibrium constant and what does it depend on
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Only depends on Temperature
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When do we use a reaction Quotient?
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We use this when we want to see what direction the reaction will proceed because these reactions are not in equilibrium
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When we are determining which direction the reaction will proceed what do we look at?
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Q=K rxn in equilibrium
Q>K rxn toward reactants Q<K rxn toward products Q=Products coefficient ------------------------- Reactants coefficient |
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La Chatlier's Principle
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When a system expereinces stree, the reaction will shift in a direction to reduce the stress.
Change in Pressure Change in concentration of reactants and product Change in Temperature |
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What is heat?
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It is the transfer of energy between systems. Any energy that is not heat has to do with work
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What is CONDUCTION?
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It is the thermal energy transfer via molecular collisions. Physical contact is required to transfer this energy.
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What is the eqation for Conduction?
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ΔT=I R
I=rate of heat flow (Q/T) R=resistance to heat flow |
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Would the Rate of Heat Flow (I) be different if the slabs conducting the heat were of different thicknesses or lengths? Why?
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No! This is because if one slab conducted heat better than others than it would cool the quickest not allowing it to accept any heat, but only give off heat. It just doesnt work!
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What does a higher Conductivity result in?
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The higher the conductivity the lower the temperature difference is between two slabs.
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What is CONVECTION?
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Heat transfer via fluids. This is how the ocean warms the air.
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What drives convection?
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Density and Pressure
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What is RADIATION?
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This is heat transfer via electromagnetic waves which can be transfered through a vacuum.
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The rate at which an object gives off radiation is dependent on what two factors?
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Temperature and Surface Area
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What is the equation for Radiation?
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P=бεAT^4
б= 5.67X10^-8 ε= emissivity of objects surface between 0 and 1 A=surface area T=temperature in Kelvins |
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If an object radiates heat fast, does it absorb heat fast?
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Yes, the faster an object radiates heat the faster an object absorbes heat.
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What type of colors tend to radiate heat best? What colors tend to reflect light?
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Dark colors tend to absorb or radiate light better than light colors, which reflect light best.
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What is PV Work?
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PV Work is when a gas expands thus causing a force and doing work.
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What is the equation of PV Work?
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w=PΔV @constant Pressure.
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What if Volume remains constant for PV Work?
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If volume is constant for PV Work then there would be no work done at all because Pressure is constant as well.
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First Law of Thermodynamics?
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States that energy is always conserved. Thus any energy change to a system must equal the heat flow in the system plus the work done on the system.
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What is the equation for the First Law of Thermodynamics for work done ON the system? What about work done BY the system?
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ΔE=q+w
ΔE=q-w q=heat flow into a system w=work done on the system |
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What is a heat engine?
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One in which we use heat and convert it to work. KNOW THE WAY THIS WORKS!!!
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What makes a heat engine more efficient?
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The further apart the two temperatures of the cold and hot reservoir the more efficient the heat engine.
If T(hot)-T(cold) is great than the efficiency of the heat engine is great. |
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Second Law of Thermodynamics?
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Heat cannot be changed completely into work in a cyclical process.
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U
T P |
Internal Energy
Temperature Pressure |
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V
H S G |
Volume
Enthalpy Entropy Gibbs Energy |
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Are State Functions dependent on the path?
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NO!!!
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What is the equation for Internal Energy? What is it if there is no change is Volume?
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ΔU=q+w
ΔU=q |
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How do you find Kelvin when given the temperature in Celcius?
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You simply add 273
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What is the equation for the average kinetic energy of a single molecule in any fluid?
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K.E.=3/2kT
k=1.38x10^-23 |
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What is the equation for ENTHALPY?
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ΔH=ΔU+PΔV
Enthalpy=ΔInternal Energy+Work |
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Is enthalpy ever constant?
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No!!! It is always changing. Entropy is what changes.
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What if there is no change in Pressure and you are asked to find Enthalpy?
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The Enthalpy will be equal to the heat.
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What is the equation for heat of reaction?
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ΔH°reaction= ΔH°products- ΔH°reactants
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What is Hess' Law?
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The sum of the enthalpy changes for each step is equal to the total enthalpy change regardless of the path chosen
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Exothermic?
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Release heat making the surrounding system Hot
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Endothermic?
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Absorb heat making the reaction system cold
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What is Entropy?
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This is the randomness of a system. It is either constant or increasing.
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Entropy Equation
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ΔS system + ΔS surroundings= ΔS Universe ≥0
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If Entropy in the system decreased, the entropy in the surroundings had to of....?
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Increased because the entropy of the universe never decreases. It can only remain the same or increase, but NEVER decrease.
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What increases with the amount of molecules, volume, and temperature?
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Entropy increases because it drives reactions in order to get in a lower energy state.
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Reactions at equilibrium have achieved maximum what???
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Maximum Universal Entropy
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What is Gibbs Free Energy Equation?
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ΔG=ΔH-TΔS
Only good with constant Temp. |
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When is equillibrium achieved when talking about Gibbs Free Energy?
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When ΔG is equal to 0 we have reached equillibrium.
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What does a -ΔG indicate?
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A Spontaneous Reaction.
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What is Heat Capacity C?
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This is the energy change needed to change the temperature of a substance.
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What is the equation for Heat Capacity C?
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C= q/ΔT
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Which is greater: Constant Pressure Heat Capacities or Constant Volume Heat Capacities?
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Constant Pressure Heat Capacities are greater
w=PΔV |
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What form of energy is there when volume is held constant? Give the equation to prove this!
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All energy is converted to heat because PV work cannot be done when there is no change in volume.
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What is the equations for both constant Pressure and constant Volume when dealing with heat capacity?
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Cv=q/ΔT (Constant Volume)
Cp=q/ΔT (Constant Pressure) |
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What happens to the heat of capacity when there is a large change in Tmperature? Use the equation to prove this!
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The heat of capacity will decrease due to th equation.
C=q/ΔT |
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When you see the units J/K or cal/celsius what equation do you use?
Heat capacity of an entire system is given |
q=CΔT
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What if you are given the units
J kg-1 K-1 or cal g-1 C-1, what equation would you use? Specific Heat capacity is given |
q=mcΔT
m=mass c=heat capacity |
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What is cwater? (Specific Heat)
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1 cal g-1 C°-1
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What is a calorimeter?
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A calorimeter is a device which measures energy change
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Coffee Cup Calorimeter?
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This is an example of a constant pressure calorimeter because it measures energy change at atm pressure
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What is coffee cup calorimeters used to measure? What equation do we use to measure this?
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Coffee cup calorimeters measure heats of reaction
q=mcΔT |
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What is a Bomb Calorimeter? What equation do we use to solve for this?
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A bomb calorimeter measures energy change at constant volume. It tells us the internal energy in a reaction.
q=CΔT |
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If we start with ice at -10 degrees celcius and heat up the ice to 0 degrees celsius, what happens to the degrees at this point?
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The degrees stays constant until the ice turns to liquid and then the temperature begins to rise again.
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What are the normal melting points and the normal boiling points for water?
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The point at which the heat capacities are infinite. There is no change until the phase change has occured.
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What is the enthalpy change associtated with melting?
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Heat of fussion
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What is the enthalpy change associated with boiling?
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Heat of vaporization
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Is the exact amount of heat absorbed during melting the same as the heat released during freezing?
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They are exactly the same
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When does vaporation occur?
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When the partial pressure above a liquid is less than the liquids vapor pressure.
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If melting and boiling increase volume and molecular movement, what does that result in in terms of energy?
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It increases the entropy of a system
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What is a phase diagram?
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A phase diagram indicates the phases of a substance at different pressures and temperatures.
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What is the triple point?
IDENTIFY ON GRAPH |
This is the point at which a substance exists at equillibrium as a solid, liquid, and gas.
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What is the critical temperature?
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A temperature above which a substance cant be liquified
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What is the critical pressure?
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A pressure that is required to produce liquification at the critical temperature
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Critical Point?
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The point at which the critical temp and the critical pressure meet.
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Why is water more dense than ice?
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Ice requires more space than the random arrangement of water molecules
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What type of slope does water have? What type of slope does CO2 have?
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Water has a negative slope and CO2 has a positive slope.
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Where does the energy go during phase changes?
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It goes as PV work or heat
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During Phase changes what does PV work or heat do?
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It breaks bonds and doesnt change the temperature
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When there is no phase change occuring what does PV work or heat do?
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It increases molecular movement which increases the temperature
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What are colligative properties?
What are they (4)? |
These are properties that depend solely on the number if particles present
Vapor Pressure, boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic pressure |
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If you add a nonvolitile solute what happens to the vapor pressure? What about boiling point?
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The vapor pressure will decrees
The boiling point will increase |
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What is the equation for Boiling Point Elevation?
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ΔT=k(b)mi
kb=specific constant of boiled substance m=molality i=#particles into which a single solute particle will dissociate when added to solution |
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van't Hoff factor
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The number of particles into which a single solute particle will dissociate when added to a solution
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For an ionic compound, what is the expected value of the van't Hoff factor?
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It is the number of ions created upon complete dissociation
NaCl (2) MgCl2 (3) |
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For an observed value of van't Hoff, what does this take into acount?
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Ion Pairing. This increases with solution concentration, and decreases with with increasing temperature
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Does addition of nonvolitile solute increase boiling point? What about freezing point?
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It increases boiling point and decreases boiling point.
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What is the equation of Freezing Point Depression?
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ΔT=kfmi
kf=specific for substance being frozen |
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If you add an impurity what will happen to the freezing point?
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Impurities will lower the freezing point
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If you add a liquid solute to a solvent, the impurities will cause an increase or a decrease in melting point?
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It will cause an increase
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If you add more and more solute, what will happen to the freezing point of the solution?
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It will increase
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Osmotic Pressure?
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It is the waters tendency to move via osmosis.
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Equation for osmosis?
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π=iMRT
M=molarity |
