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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Emission Spectrum
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A bright line spectrum formed when energy absorbed by an element is emmited @ specific wavelengths. Each element has a unique spectrum
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Absorbtion Spectrum
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A dark line spectrum formed when white light is passed through a vaporized element and a few specific wavelengths are absorbed
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Bohr Model of the H Atom
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1) e- are present only in specific energy states
2) quantum energy is absorbed or emitted to change energy levels 3)Quantum- smallest ammount of energy that can be gained or lost |
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Ground State
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e- is a t it's lowest energy levels as close to nucleus as possible
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Excited State
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e- absorbs energy + moves to higher energy level above ground state
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4 Quantum #'s and Symbols
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n=principal energy level
l=sublevel m=orbital s=spin |
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Sublevel e- cpacity
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s=2e-
p=6e- d=10e- f=14e- |
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Valence
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# of e- in the atom's highest # d shell
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Electronegativity Difference
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# found by taking th edifference between the e-negativities of 2 atoms. Value determines bond type.
Values differ by 1.7 or more... ionic |
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Nonpolar Covalent Bond
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When the e-neg. diff. is very small(less than .5). 2 bonded atoms share velence e- resulting molec has no electrostatic charge.
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Polar Covalent Bond
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e-neg. diff. is btwn. .5-1.7 the bonding e- stay closer to more e-neg. atom... shared unequally.
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Coordinate Covalent Bond
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when both e- in a covalent bond are supplied by one atom
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Metallic Bonds
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sea of e- surrounding positive metal ions
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Hydrogen Bonding
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when H bonds to O,N,F
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Octet Rule
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atoms tend to gain or lose outer shell e- in order to acheive a noble gas config. of 8 e-
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Resonance Structures
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more than 1 possible bonding structure
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Hybrid Orbitals
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2 or more orbitals mix to form identical hybrid orbitals.
triple bond sp double bond sp2 single bond sp3 |
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Properties of ionc substances
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non-conducting
high mp brittle low volatility |
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properties of molecular substances
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non-conducting
volatile many gases low mp/bp soft waxy solids |
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Enthalpy Difference
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difference in heat content btwn the products and reactants
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Exothermic rxn
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∆H is negative
Enthalpy is decreased |
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Endothermic rxn
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∆H is positive
Enthalpy is increased |
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Hess's Law
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∆H for a rxn is the same regardless of the path travelled from reactants to products
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Molar Heat of Formation
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equal to ∆H when 1 mole of a cmpnd is formed from its elements @ 1 atm and 25˚C
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Specific Heat
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Ammount heat required to raise 1 g of a subst. 1˚C
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Equation for energy change when a fixed mass of a subst. changes temp.
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Q=mC∆T
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Charle's Law
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V1/T1=V2/T2
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Boyle's Law
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P1V1=P2V2
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Combined Gas Law
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P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
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Ideal Gas Law
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PV=nRT
R=.0802 L-Atm/mol-K |
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Avogadro's Law
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Under same conditions of temp. and pressure; equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of moles
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Vol of one mol of any gas at STP
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22.4 L
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Heat of Fusion
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solid---->liquid
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Heat of Vaporization
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liquid--->gas
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Triple Point
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The only temp and pressure combination @ which the 3 phases of a substance can co-exist @ equalibrium
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Vapor Pressure
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pressure the gas phase exerts on its liquid phase in a closed container.
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Molarity
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# of moles solute/ liter of solution
M=n/L |
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3 factors that effect rate of sollubility
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pulverizing, stirring, heating
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Molality
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moles solute/ Kg solvent
m=n/Kg |
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Gram equivellent weight
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ammount of subst. which reacts w/or displaces 1 mole of H+ ions
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Normality
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# of gram equivelent weights in a liter of solution
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5 factors that control rxn rate
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nature of reactants
surface area concentration temp. catalyst |
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Activation Energy
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Energy necessary for a rxn to begin. Obtained from the kinetic energy released durign a collsion.
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Law of Mass Action
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Rate of chemical rxn is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants
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Specific rate constant
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symbol is "K" in a rate eq. A constant specific to temp. and rxn which is part of every rate eq.
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Le Chatlier's Principle
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if stress is placed on a system @ equil. the equil. will shift in order to counteract effects of the stress and regain equil.
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Ionization Constant
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for subst. in soln. that partly ionize.
Ki=[H+][A-]/[HA] |
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2 driving forces of rxns
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Increased entropy- (disorder)
decreased enthalpy-(heat) |
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Second law of thermodynamics
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Entropy of univ. increases for any spontaneous process
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Free energy change ∆G
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property which reflects a systems capacity to do useful work
∆G=∆H-T∆S ∆G negative=spontaneous |
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Ionization Constant
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Kw=1x10-14@25˚C
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Solubility product constant
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an equil. exists in a saturated soln. btwn. dissolved and undissolved solute "Ksp" is the equil constant for this rxn.
KspAgCl= [Ag+][Cl-] |
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Arhenius Theory
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an acid yields protons in soln. (H+)
a base yields OH- |
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Bronstead Theory
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an acid is a proton donor
a base is a proton acceptor |
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Lewis theory
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ana acid is an e- acceptor
a base is an e- pair donor |
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Equation for finding vol or molarity when given vol or molarity
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MaxVa=MbxVb
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Anode
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A positively charged electrode which attracts anions where OXIDATION takes place
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Cathode
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A negatively charged electrode which attracts cations where REDUCTION occurs
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Electrode Potential
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a measure in volts of the tendencyof atoms to gain or lose e-.
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Spontaneousredox rxn
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add the electrode potenetials of the 2 half rxns. If the result is positive, the rxn is spontaneous; if negative the rxn is not spontaneous
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Ether
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R-O-R'
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Amine
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R-NH2
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Ester
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R-O-C=O-R
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Amino Acid
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H2N-CRH-COOH
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Alpha Particle
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Helium nucleus
ejection reduces atomic # by 2 amu and atomic weight by 4 amu. |
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Beta Particle
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e- ejected from a nucleus. Neutron decays to proton.
Increases atomic # by 1 high velocity low energy |
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Gamma (positron) Radiation
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doesn't change mass or charge
high energy travels at speed of light |
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Transmutation
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Conversion of an element to a new element due to a change in # of protons
alpha or beta decay |
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Fission
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breakdown of heavy nuclei into lighter nuclei
nuclear power |
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Fussion
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joining of lighter nuclei to form heavier nuclei.
Sun's Power |
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Conversion from
celcius-->farenheit |
˚F=(1.8x˚C)+32
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Conversion from
celius--->kelvin |
K=˚C+273
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Energy
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ability to do work; it is released or absorbed during chem. rxn's in the form of heat, light, electricity
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Matter
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A susbstance that occupies space and has mass
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Density
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D=(mass)(volume)
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Element
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substance composed of identical atoms
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Compound
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subst. composed of 2 or more elements chemically combined
NaCl. NH3, H2O |
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Mixture
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A combination of subst. held together by physical means
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Dalton's Atomic Theory
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1) an element is composed of identical atoms
2)atoms of different elements have diff. properties 3)compounds are atoms of 2 or more elements chem. combined |
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Law of Conservation of Mass
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During a chem. reaction matter is neither created or destroyed
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Law of Constant Composition
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Cmpnd always contains the same elements combined in the same in the same portions by mass
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Law of Multiple Proportions
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Same elements may combine to form more than one compound. The ratios are in small whole #'s
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Atomic Mass Unit
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the mass of a proton or neutron is equal to 1 amu
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Atomic #
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# of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element
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Mass #
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the sum of protons+neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
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Isotope
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atoms which contain the same # of protons but diff. #'s of neutrons
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Molecule
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A group of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
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Diatomic Elements
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H2,O2,F2,Br2,I2,N2,Cl2
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formal charge
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charge=
Valence e - 1/2 Nbondinge-Nnonbondinge |
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percent yield
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actual/theoretical
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limiting reactants
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1)determine moles needed
2)look at eq. determine limiting reagent |
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isothermal process
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temp remains constant
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isobaric process
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pressure remains constant
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adiabatic
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no heat exchange
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soluble aqueous soln
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salts of alkali metals
salts of ammonium chlorides bromides iodides sulfate ion |
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insoluble aqueous soln
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metal oxides
hydroxides carbonates phosphates sulfites |
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chiral molecules
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non-superimposable images
handedness |
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stereoisomers
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same atomic connections but arrange diff. in space
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geometric isomers
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differ in arrangement of atoms around double bond
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determining absolute configuration at a single chiral center
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1)assign priority by atomic number
2)orient the molecule with the lowest priority substituent at the back 3)lowest priority to highest priority R=clockwise S=countercockwise |
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meso compounds
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contain chiral centers but are not optically active due to an internal plane of symmetry
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specific rotation(alpha)
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observed rotation/concentration(g/ml)Xlength(dm)
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diastereomers
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for any molec with n chiral centers there are 2 to the n sterioisomers
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conformational isomers
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compuonds that differ only by rotation about one or more single bonds
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energy scale of diff conformations
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highest energy=totally eclipsed, eclipsed, gauche, anti
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good leaving groups
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weak bases, halides
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SN1
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2 steps
dissociation of a molecule into a carbocation and a good leaving group combination of carbocation with a good nucleophile slow step is rate determining step favored in polar protic solvents racemic products favored with use of bulky nucleophile rate=k[RX] |
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SN2
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single step rxn
nucleophile performs backside attack and replaces leaving group favored in polar aprotic solvents rate=K[Nu][RX] optically active inverted products |
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Alkyne reduced to cis alkene
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H2, Pd/BaSO4, quinoline
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Alkyne reduced to trans alkene
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Na, NH3
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activating, ortho/para directing(e- donating)
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NH2, NR2, NHCOR, OR, OCOR, R
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deactivating ortho/para directing (weak e- withdrawing)
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F, Cl, Br, I
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deactivating meta directing (e- withdrawing)
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NO2, SO3H, carbonyl cmpnds, COOH, COOR, COR, CHO
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primary alcohols oxidize to
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aldehydes--->carboxylic acids
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secondary alcohols oxidize to
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ketones
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ways to stabalize the negative charge and thus increase acidity are
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1)e- withdrawing groups(halides)
2)groups that allow more resonance stabilization (benzyl or allyl substituents) |
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order fo reactivityof carboxylic acid derivatives
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acyl halides, anhydrides, esters, amides
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proteins
primary structure |
describes the amino acid sequence and covalent bonds
cystine |
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proteins
secondary structure |
describes hydrogen bonding
alpha helix and beta pleated sheets keratin in hair |
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proteins
tertiary structure |
3 dimensional shape of the protein
myglobin collagen |
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proteins
quaternary structure |
arrangement of polypeptide sub units
hemoglobin |