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57 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Cell Cycle and Mitosis
PMAT
Prophase = Prepare (condense chromatin into chromosomes, break down nuclear membrane, assemble mitotic spindle, centriole pairs move toward opposite poles of the cell)
Metaphase = Middle (Chromosomes line up in the middle)
Anaphase = Apart (Sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite sides of cell)
Telophase = Prophase in reverse. de-condense chromosomes, re-form nuclear membrane, break down mitotic spindle.
DNA Replication
DNA replicates 5' to 3'
Cellular Respiration
Net gain per glucose.
Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH
PDC: 2 pyruvate > 2 acteylCoA + 2 NADH
Krebs: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 GTP

each NADH > 2.5 ATP
each FADH2 > 1.5 ATP

overall theoretical: 32 ATP
actual: 36 ATP
Electron Transport Chain
oxides NADH to NAD+, intermembrane increases in [H+] = low pH, this drives ATP synthase

Oxygen is final e- acceptor, gets reduces to H2O
Fat Metabolism: Beta Oxidation
occurs in mitochondria matrix. Acetyl-CoA goes to Krebs cycle
Ester hydrolysis occurs in cytosol
More energy per gram than any other food.
Oxidation
attachment of Oxygen or increase bonds to Oxygen.
Remove H's, loose e-

OIL RIG
LEO GIR
Reduction
Remove Oxygen or decrease bonds to Oxygen.
Add H's, gain e-
Prokaryote Polymerases
3 types of DNApol
DNApol III: fast 5'-3' replication, 3'-5' exonuclease (proof reading)
DNApol II: unknown
DNApol I: slower, 5'-3' exonuclease to remove primer

single RNApol for transcription
Eukaryote Polymerases
single DNApol

RNApol I: rRNA
RNApol II: mRNA
RNApol III: tRNA
lac Operon (prokaryotes regulation of transcription)
Absence of lactose: repressor binds to operator, preventing production of catabolic enzymes wich would break down lactose for energy

Presence of lactose: lactose binds to repressor, pulling it off operator thereby allowing transcription and production of catabolic enzymes
Tryp Operon
opposite to lac operon.
in presence of excess tryptophan, enzyme transcription is prevented
Prokaryotes
no membrane bond organelles
has nucleoid which has no membrane.
1 ds circular DNA
translation occurs before transcription is complete
Gram-negative
Stains red.
thicker, outer layer
Fungus
mushrooms: multi-celled
yeast: uni-cellular
chitin in cell wall
asexual or sexual
Telomeres
In Eukaryotes
extended portions of DNA. each replication cycle part of the end is lost.
Involved in aging.
Simple Diffusion (passive transport)
easily pass thru membrane e.g. steroid
or glucose in RBC.
don't need help from protein channels
Facilitated Diffusion (passive transport)
Integral membrane protein channels: very selective e.g. voltage or ligand-gated
Carriers: uniport, symport, anti-port
Primary Active Transport (active = against gradient)
coupled to ATP hydrolysis e.g. NaK ATPase.
3Na+ out, 2K+ in

(since life evolved from ocean Na+Cl- is high outside the cell)
Secondary Active Transport
indirectly coupled to ATP.
e.g. ATPase pump is used to create Na+ gradient, then glucose is pumped against its gradient
Signal Transduction
converts chemical into cellular response.
ligand binds to receptor....then can create cascade of events
G-protein coupled receptor
e.g. epinephrine binds to receptor, GDP > GTP, alpha subunit releases, adenyl cyclase > cAMP (second messenger)
Meiosis I
Prophase I: longest step, homologous chromosomes (2n) pair up (XX), recombination occurs
Metaphase I: tetrads align in middle
Anaphase I: homologs separate, X on each side
Telophase I: considered haploid (n) still have replicated sister chromatids (46 total copies)
Meiosis II
movement of chromosomes as in Mitosis.
end up with 4 gametes (n)
Non-disjunction
homologous chromosomes fail to separate in Meiosis I (2 cells, 1 w/ 4 copies, other with Zero)
or sister chromatids fail to separate in Meiosis II
Hardy-Weinberg
p + q = 1

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Human Taxonomy
Dear King Philip Came Over For Green Soup

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Vertebrata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae
Sympathetic (Autonomic PNS)
increase heart rate, increase BP
increase blood to muscles, decrease to digestion
Pupil Dilation
increase glucose by breaking down glycogen
Myopia (nearsightedness)
too much curve in lense or long eye-ball, focal length is shorter

corrected with divergent lense
Hyperopia (farsightedness)
lens is too flat or short eye-ball, focal length goes passed eye-ball.

corrected with converging lens
Ear
Malleus, Incus, Stapes

Cochlea: detects sound
Semi-circular canal: detects orientation and movement
Vagus Nerve
decreases HR
increase GI activity - parasympathetic
Chirality of amino acids and sugars
amino acids: L

sugars: D
Glucose anomers
alpha: OH group is opposite of methyl

beta: OH group is on same side as methyl

humans can only metabolize alpha.
cellulose has beta linkages.
amphipathic
e.g. phospholipid

hydrophilic (polar) on one side and hyrdophobic (non-polar) on the other side
Michaelis constant
Km = 1/2Vmax

enzyme saturation kinetics
zymogen
inactive form of enzyme.
once cleaved, become irreversibly activated.
substrate level phosphorylation
formation of ATP from ADP and Pi using energy from highly favorable rxn

occurs in cytoplasm - glycolysiss also
in mitochondra - Krebs cycle
Fermentation
recycles NADH to NAD+
transposons
section of DNA that can excise itself from chromosome and reinsert itself
Crossing over > Genetic Recombination
homologous chromosomes form tetrad, after (if) they cross over its called a chiasma
Viral Life Cycles
lytic: virus takes over cell, reproduces inside cell than eventually causes the cell to lyse (burst)...*virulent virus*

lysogenic: virus incorporates its genes into hosts. (HIV, reverse transcribes RNA to DNA then incorporates into cell) *temperate virus* becomes dormant or latent called provirus/prophage/lysogen. Becomes virulent after stress e.g. herpes simplex virus
+ strand RNA
unenveloped RNA. + means proteins can be directly translated from RNA.
e.g. common cold, HIV
- strand RNA
must be transcribed to +RNA before translation can occur.
e.g. measles, rabies, flu
Bacteriophage
virus targeted to bacteria

capsid/head, tail, tail fiber
3 major shapes of bacteria
cocci: round
bacilli: rod
spirilla/spirochetes: spiral
Bacteria Nutrition
troph = eat
Carbon
auto: CO2
hetero: organic e.g. glucose

Energy
chemo: chemical
photo: light
Tonicity
measure of osmotic pressure (water) and defined by the SOLUTION. solutes can't cross the membrane

hypertonic: solution has higher conc. of solutes, therefore water goes down conc. gradient, cell shrivels

isotonic: iso = same

hypotonic: lower conc. of solutes in solution, therefore water goes into cell, cell bursts
vertical sagittal plane
divides body cavity into right and left portions
Eukaryotic organelles
rER: (r = ribosomes) translate proteins that will be exported, pushed into ER lumen

Golgi: receive proteins from rER lumen to process them, glycosylate etc.

lysosomes: come from golgi, hydrolyze endocytic stuff, can rupture to cause autolysis

sER: synthesize and store fats
Microtubules
(contain tubulin) larger than microfilaments. e.g. flagella, cilia, spindle apparatus
cilia: fallopian tubes, respiratory tract

MTOC (microtubule organizing center), centrosome, centriole
Microfilaments
(contain actin) squeeze membrane in phagocytosis and cytokinesis
contraction in microvilli, muscle
Flagella and cilia
9 + 2 microtubules in eukaryotes
axoneme is the major portion
dynein connects microtubules
Cellular Junctions
tight junctions: watertight fluid barrier, e.g. kidney, intestines, bladder....waste materials can't escape into the body

desmosome: attach two cells at single point, e.g. skin

gap junction: small tunnels connecting cells, e.g. cardiac muscle....spread action potential from cell to cell
Hypothalamus hormones
Releasing hormones for the pituitary
PACTOGG

PRH = Prolactin Releasing Hormone.
ADH = Antidiuretic Hormone = Vasopressin, increase water reabsorption in kidney = conserve water, increase blood pressure.
CRF = Corticotropin Releasing Factor.
TRH = Thyroid Releasing Hormone.
Oxytocin = stimulates uterine contractions during labor, also milk secretion during suckling.
GnRH = Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone, stimulates pituitary to release FSH and LH.
GHRH = Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone.

Posterior Pituitary: Oxytocin, ADH
Pituitary hormones
FLAT PiG

FSH = Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Stimulate ovary follicles to mature, testis to produce sperm.
LH = Luteinizing Hormone, LH surge triggers ovulation, stimulates testis to produce testosterone.
ACTH = AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone, Stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
TSH = Thyroid Stimulation Hormone = Stimulate thyroid to release thyroid hormones.
PRL = Prolactin, Stimulates breast to produce milk.
GH = Growth Hormone, Stimulates growth of muscle, bone, burns fat.
Endocrine Gland products:

Adrenals
Pancreas
Thyroid
Gonads
Adrenals: steroids, glucocorticoid - cortisol. mineral corticoid - aldosterone.
(tyrosine derivatives - catecholamines -- epi and norepinephrine)

Pancreas: insulin, glucagon

Thyroid: (tyrosine derivatives) T3, T4, parathyroid

Gonads: testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
oxidative phosphorylation
process in ETC that produces ATP, oxidizes NADH