Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
63 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
zymogen |
inactive form of an enzyme; contain a catalytic domain and a regulatory domain - the regulatory domain must be either removed or altered to expose the active site (ex: trypsinogen for trypsin) |
|
|
Steps of Cellular Respiration (aerobic) |
1) Glycolysis 2) Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA (Pyruvate Decarboxylation) 3) Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 4) Electron Transport Chain
|
|
|
Glycolysis (Inputs/Outputs) |
Inputs: ADP: 2 ATP: 2 NAD+: 2 Glucuse: 1
Outputs: Pyruvate: 2 ATP: 4 NADH: 2 |
|
|
Alcohol Fermentation |
Pyruvate (3C) --> CO2 + Acetaldehyde (2C) Acetaldehyde (2C) + NADH + H+ --> Ethanol (2C) + NAD+ |
|
|
Lactic Acid Fermentation |
Pyruvate (3C) + NADH + H+ --> Lactic Acid + NAD+ |
|
|
Pyruvate Decarboxylation |
2 Pyruvate (3C) + 2 CoA + 2 NAD+ --> 2 NADH + 2 Acetyl-CoA (2C) + 2 CO2 |
|
|
Citric Acid Cycle |
2 cycles per molecule of glucose (2 pyruvate) 2 x 1 GTP (ATP) --> 2 ATP 2 x 1 FADH2 --> 2 FADH2 2 X 3 NADH --> 6 NADH
2 Acetyl-CoA + 6 NAD+ + 2 FAD + 2 GDP + 2 P + 4 H2O --> 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP + 2 H+ + 2CoA |
|
|
Electron Transport Chain |
The actual production of energy released on coupling the energy drops to the phosphorylation of ADP A proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane links the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 to ADP phosphorylation As reduced carriers give up electrons, free protons are passed into the mitochondrial matrix, where they accumulate These protons are pumped into the inter membrane space at each of the major protein complexes The accumulation of H+ in the inter membrane space makes it both positively charged and acidic ATP synthase generates ATP from ADP by allowing photons to move down the concentration gradient created by the ETC |
|
|
Total ATP Generated in Cellular Respiration |
Each NADH can generate 3 ATP per molecule, except for the two from glycolysis Each FADH2 can generate 2 ATP per molecule
Glycolysis: 2 ATP invested = -2 ATP 4 ATP generated = 4 ATP 2 NADH x 2 ATP/NADH = 4 ATP
Pyruvate Decarboxylation: 2 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH = 6 ATP
Citric Acid Cycle 6 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH = 18 ATP 2 FADH2 x 2 ATP/FADH2 = 4 ATP 2 GTP x 1 ATP/GTP = 2 ATP
Total = 36 ATP |
|
|
Parthenogenesis |
The process whereby an adult organism develops from an unfertilized egg - they will be haploid in number because only one parent contributed genetic material |
|
|
Sperm Pathway |
SEVEn UP Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct (Nothing) Urethra Penis |
|
|
Spermatogenesis |
The formation of haploid sperm through meiosis, occurs in the seminiferous tubules
Spermatogonia (2n) --> primary spermatocytes (2n) --> secondary spermatocytes (n) --> spermatids (n) --> spermatozoa (n) |
|
|
Oogenesis |
All oogonia are formed during fetal development At birth, females have pre differentiated cells known as primary oocytes (2n) that are frozen in prophase I Once a woman reaches menarche, one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I, producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body The secondary oocyte remains frozen in metaphase II and does not complete the remainder of meiosis II unless fertilization occurs
|
|
|
2 cell layers that surround oocytes |
Zona pellucida Corona radiata |
|
|
Menopause |
The ovaries become less sensitive to their stimulating hormones (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and eventually atrophy The ovaries contribute to a negative feedback loop - if they are not responding to FSH and LH these levels will be elevated because they have no estrogen and progesterone feedback
|
|
|
Formation of a zygote |
Sperm cells secrete acrosomal enzymes to digest the corona radiate and penetrate the zone pellucida |
|
|
Cortical reaction |
Once the sperm penetrates the oocyte the ovum, Ca2+ ions are released into the cytoplasm, which in turn leads to the formation of the fertilization membrane - impenetrable to other sperm to prevent multiple fertilizations
Ca2+ also greatly increases the metabolic rate of the ovum and soon-to-be zygote |
|
|
Embryo cleavage event time points |
1st cleavage: 32 hours post fertilization 2nd cleavage: 60 hours post fertilization 3rd cleavage: 72 hours post fertilization |
|
|
Ectoderm |
Skin/Integument Neurons Pituitary Gland Eyes Ears Nose Mouth Hair
|
|
|
Mesoderm |
Musculoskeletal system Circulatory system Excretory system Gonads Muscular and CT coats of the digestive and respiratory systems Bone marrow Heart and blood vessels Kidney tubules Muscle |
|
|
Endoderm |
Epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts Liver Pancreas Thyroid Bladder Distal urinary and reproductive tracts Lung Bladder Urethra |
|
|
Fetal circulation: 3 shunts |
Foramen ovale: connects the right and left atria Ductus arteriosus: connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta Ductus venosus: connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava |
|
|
First Trimester |
Major organs begin to develop, heat begins to beat at approximately 22 days, eyes, gonads limbs, liver start to form, cartilaginous skeleton begins to harden |
|
|
Second Trimester |
Rapid growth, begins to move around, face appears human, toes and fingers elongate |
|
|
Third Trimester |
Continued rapid growth, further brain development, antibodies are transported by highly selective active transport from the mother to the fetus |
|
|
Cartilage |
Consists of a firm but elastic matrix called chondrin that is secreted by cells called chondrocytes |
|
|
Trabeculae |
Cavities in spongy bone that are filled with bone marrow |
|
|
Osteons/Haversian systems |
Structural units of the bony matrix, each encircles a central microscopic channel known as a Haversian canal, surrounded by concentric circles of bony matrix called lamellae |
|
|
Haversian canals |
Contain blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph |
|
|
Lacunae |
The spaces within the matrix in between the concentric circles (lamellae) which house mature bone cells known as osteocytes |
|
|
Canaliculi |
Canals that connect adjacent lacunae that allow for exchange of nutrients and wastes between them and the Haversian canals |
|
|
Ossification |
Bone formation |
|
|
Endochondral ossification |
Creation of bone by the hardening of cartilage |
|
|
Intramembranous ossification |
Process of bone formation in which undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue is transformed into, and replaced by, bone |
|
|
Osteoblasts |
Build bone |
|
|
Osteoclasts |
Resorb (break down) bone |
|
|
Tendons |
Connect muscle to bone |
|
|
Ligaments |
Connect bone to bone |
|
|
Fibroblasts |
Loose connective tissue cell type; secrete substances that are components of extracellular fibers |
|
|
Macrophages |
Loose connective tissue cell type; engulf bacteria and dead cells via phagocytosis |
|
|
Dense connective tissue |
Connective tissue with a high proportion of collagenous fibers organized in parallel bundles that give the fibers great tensile strength
Forms tendons and ligaments |
|
|
Loose connective tissue |
Found throughout the body, attaches epithelium to underlying tissues and is the packing material that holds organs in place; contains collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers, fibroblasts, macrophages |
|
|
Abductor muscle |
Moves a part of the body away from the body's midline |
|
|
Adductor muscle |
Moves a part of the body toward the body's midline |
|
|
Salivary amylase |
Produced and secreted by the salivary glands, hydrolyzes starch to maltose |
|
|
Pancreatic amylase |
Produced and secreted by cells of the pancreas, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze starch and maltose |
|
|
Maltase |
Produced and secreted by intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze maltose to two glucose molecules |
|
|
Sucrase |
Produced and secreted by intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze sucrose to glucose and fructose |
|
|
Lactase |
Produced and secreted by intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze lactose to glucose and galactose |
|
|
Pepsin |
Secreted by the chief cells of the gastric glands as pepsinogen, functions in the stomach to hydrolyze specific peptide bonds |
|
|
Trypsin |
Secreted by the pancreas as trypsinogen, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze specific peptide bonds. Also converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin |
|
|
Chymotrypsin |
Secreted by the pancreas as chymotrypsinogen, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze specific peptide bonds |
|
|
Carboxypeptidase |
Secreted by the pancreas, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze terminal peptide bond at carboxyl end |
|
|
Aminopeptidase |
Secreted by intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze terminal peptide bond at amino end |
|
|
Dipeptidases |
Secreted by intestinal glands, function in the small intestine to hydrolyze pairs of amino acids |
|
|
Enterokinase |
Secreted by intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine to convey trypsinogen to trypsin |
|
|
Bile |
Produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which releases it in the small intestine (duodenum) to emulsify fat |
|
|
Lipase |
Secreted by the pancreas, functions in the small intestine to hydrolyze lipids |
|
|
Parietal cells |
Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) |
|
|
Pyloric glands |
Secrete gastrin |
|
|
Gastrin |
Secreted by the pyloric glands, induces the stomach to secrete more HCl and to mix the contents of the stomach |
|
|
Pancreatic Juice |
Complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate (basic) solution
|
|
|
Cholecytokinin |
A hormone that stimulates the gall bladder to release bile into the duodenum by way of the bile duct |
