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77 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Below Mesopelagic
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-Drop in species; scattered
-Causes problems with species diversity --> designed for land and shallow water |
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Sampling
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-requires big ships, big engines, big wires, & other equipment to pull sled
-need 6000m of thick cable to pull sled |
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Environmental Characteristics (below mesopelagic)
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-no light below mesopelagic
-source of photosynthesis/food comes from epipelagic -feed on food deposits on bottom, wood, etc. |
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Pressure
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-Increases 1 atm for every 10m in depth
-most deep sea between 200 and 600 atm -organisms --> above 80% water, less lipids & proteins -Inefficient enzyme systems, but suited for pressure -calcium carbonate dissociates at high pressure, but organisms still able to make shells out of this |
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Deep sea salinity
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constant
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Deep sea temperature
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constant/cold
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Deep sea oxygen
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oxygen minimum stratification usually around 500 - 1000m
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Deep Sea food
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organic material that sinks from shallow water
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Deep Sea Biomass
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very low (1%) after 1000m
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Deep Sea adaptations
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-mesopelagic
-bioluminescence, colors, big eyes -squid --> photophores -Deep Water -fish have big mouths, curved teeth, flexible bodies --> angler fish & stomiatoid fish -very large anthropods & ostrocods & copepods in deep water -theory --> long life = long growth period & delayed sexual maturity |
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Anatomical Differences
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-color
-photophores -jaws -eyes -olfactory organs -CNS -muscle tissue -skeleton -swim bladder -gills -kidneys -heart |
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Bioluminescence in deep sea
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-breakdown of luciferin by luciferinase
-photophores -usually have blue wavelengths -used as defense mechanism, to attract food, species recognition, mating behaviors, in schools of fish (lantern fish) |
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Benthos
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-epifauna --> lives on top of sediment
-infauna --> lives in sediments -large number of cnidarian -starfish, sea urchins, cusk eels, sea pens, sea cucumbers (echinoderms -->starfish group) -sea cucumbers --> breathe through anus, use anus as defense mechanism -sea lillies --> suspension feeders |
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sea mounts
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-a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water's surface (sea level)
-large amount of productivity |
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Hydrothermal Vents
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-organisms live near, but not on vents (too hot)
-lots of organisms in water (8 - 16 degrees C) -normal deep sea temp --> 2 degrees C |
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Cold Seeps
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-found at edges of tectonic plates
-hydrothermal vents & cold seeps have limited lifespans -organisms use whale carcasses on bottom --> used to travel around in for bivalves -polychetes, riftia, large clams, mussels -all vent systems & cold seeps depend on primary productivity of chemoautotrophic bacteria |
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Deep Sea Migration
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-Review?
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Sampling Benthos
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-use heavy grabs to sample bottom
-scuba --> not a great method for deep sampling; good scuba sampling at 30m -submersibles -->manned & unmanned for deeper samples -sonar --> used in some sampling |
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Benthos organisms
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-polychaetes
-crustaceans --> ostracods, amphipods, isopods, tanaids, mysids, decapods -mollusks --> burrowing bivalves & scaphopods -echinoderms --> brittle stars, heart urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, & few predatory star fish |
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Destabilizers
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-biotubators --> motile & sedentary organisms cause sediments to move & erode or change
-deposit feeding clams, deposit feeding sea cucumbers destabilize by feeding & defecating |
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Stabilizers
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-sea grasses & kelps
-tube dwellers --> amphipod crustacenas, phoronid worms, tube-building anemones & polychaetes |
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Community Structure & Change (Shallow Benthic)
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-Barnstable Harbor, MA --> sandy area colonized in spring by tube-building amphipods --> build large mats of tubes = change in physical & biological environment
-stormy winter weather washes mats out & allows for snails to return (destabilizers) |
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Competitive Interference (Shallow Benthic)
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-competition for space
-bodies of organisms at different depths in sediment to reduce competition -some organisms live in other organisms tubes |
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Surface Predators
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-exposed at surface & take organisms at or near surface without disrupting it
-polychaetes --> feed at surface but live in sediment -fishes & various crabs |
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Burrowing Predators
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-gastropods, nemertean worms
-move down various tubes or channels provided by deep dwelling prey |
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Digging Predators
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-blue crabs, gastropods, rays, sea star (extends feet down to grab prey)
-excavate hole to get food -disturb sediment |
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Infaunal Predators
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-nemertine worms, carnivorous polychaete worms
-burrow through & live in substrate |
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Cages used to study shallow benthic
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-shows exclusion of predators
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Rocky Subtidal
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-predators control area (fish, sea stars, etc.)
-can't burrow into rock --> only algae left on rocks -sea urchins have trouble going up slops, but will have fish predation -sea anemones abundant on vertical walls along with sea squirts, soft corals, sponges, & algae -lots of interference competition (only 2D area) |
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Kelp Beds
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-holdfast, stipe, blades, pneumatocyst --> gas filled float used for buoyancy
-Southern California due to cold upwellings (summer warming bad for kelp) -very tall (up to 30m) -sometimes destroyed by storms -sea urchin populations grow since they eat dead kelp --> sea otters increase because they eat sea urchins |
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Seagrass Communities
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-cut down current
-associated with epiphytes living on blades -sediment stabilizers --> lots of polychaetes -manatees live in sea grass beds as well as sea turtles, pin fish and birds (brant) -low oxygen levels due to decomposition -productivity similar to coral reef -Temperate areas = 1000 g C/m^2/year -Tropic areas = 4000 g C/m^2/year |
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Polar Seas
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-Arctic Ocean is an isolated sea surrounded by land masses --> only Bering Strait & Fram Strait connect it to other oceans
-lots of freshwater runoff and nutrients from land -Antarctic --> open to all oceans -epifauna -sea anenomes, sponges, etc. -migrations of zooplankton -lots of krill at Antarctic |
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Intertidal Ecology
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-composed primarily of marine animals (due to salt)
-tides are very predictable (only Med., Baltic, and Black Seas don't have tidal action) -tides caused by centrifugal force of earth's rotation & gravitational pull of moon |
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Tides
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-caused by centrifugal force of earth's rotation & gravitational pull of moon
-2 high tides & 2 low tide per day -high tides occur on the side of earth facing moon & opposite side -highest tides occur when moon is closest to earth & when moon is aligned with sun -Bay of Fundi & Cook Islet have highest tides (45-65 feet) |
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Intertidal Organisms
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-exposed to air in intertidal
-damage depends on when & where exposure occurs -temp range (-20 to 40 degrees C) throughout year -organisms adjust mating to fit tides |
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Intertidal Salinity
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-fresh water runoff, precipitation, & estuaries change salinity
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Intertidal Resistance to Water Loss
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-hydrate quickly when in contact with water after being dehydrated
-crabs move into cracks -animals with shells close and trap water inside -Mollusks have ridged shells to increase surface area (absorb more heat before losing water) -fish --> streamline shape, large body size, reduction in gills -can't breathe & get oxygen through skin -feed at high tides at night |
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Tidal Zones are hard to study
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difficult to replicate study
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Rocky Shores
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-2 dimensional surface
-High mechanical stress -zonation --> banding caused by different areas where organisms inhabit & competition |
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Rocky Shores (Atlantic)
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-only as far South as Cape Cod
-fewer species & speciation on Atlantic Coast |
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Rocky Shores (Pacific)
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-Alaska to California
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Supralittoral Fringe
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-upper area of Rocky shore with snails & algae
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Midlittoral Zone
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-area of rocky shores with barnacles & kelp
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Infralittoral Fringe
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-area of rocky shore with upper limits of large kelp to area of lowest tide
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Chthalamus
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-barnacle on upper part of high tide marks
-can handle exposure & waves |
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Semibalanus
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-barnacle which out competes Chthalamus except for areas of high exposure & wave crash
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Keystone Species
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-ability to influence the structure of the entire intertidal community
-top level predator that opens up space for other species by reducing competition -ex. starfish & bivalves |
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Cobble Beaches
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-Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, Maine
-very little to no thermal relief -fewer organisms than other areas -Cordgrass (Spartina) --> put in to increase diversity; it handles changes in salinity & virtually nothing eats them when they are alive |
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Sandy Shores
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-high wave action
-3 dimensional system -Swash --> water running up beach after wave breaks -Backwash --> water flowing back down beach -crabs like this areas as well as sand dollars |
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Dissipative Beach
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-Sandy Beach
-strong wave action --> gentle swash & fine sediments -gentle slope |
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Reflective Beach
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-Sandy Beach
-wave action impinges directly on beach face -coarse sediments, large swashes, steep slope |
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Muddy Shores
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-very little wave action
-very fine sediments -oxygen depletion -polychaetes, red algae, diatoms, sea grasses, bivalves -rays, flat fish, spots, skates |
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Estuary
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-partially enclosed coastal embayment where fresh water and salt water meet
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Coastal-Plain Estuary
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-sunken river beds formed by glaciers during last ice age
-form salt water wedge -extreme variations in temp, salinity, turbidity, etc. -low speciation de to diverse/changing environment -Chesapeake Bay, Delaware River Mouth, Hudson River Mouth |
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Tectonic Estuaries
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-West Coast
-Forms when sea reinvades land at subduction zones (subsidence of land) -very small & narrow -San Francisco Bay |
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Semi-enclosed Bay
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-Lagoon (Review Drawing)
-Common in Texas & Florida Gulf Coast |
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Fjord
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-valley that has been deepened by glacial action & is then invaded by the sea
-shallow sill at mouth which restricts interchange of waer |
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Positive Estuary
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-salt wedge
-river dominated -evaporation is less than flow in (Chesapeake Bay) |
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Neutral Estuary
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-a lot of mixing or evaporation = flow in
-small estuaries -salinity somewhat stable |
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Negative Esturary
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-very salty at surface
-dry climates (deserts) -more evaporation than flow in |
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Estuary Characteristics
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-salinity --> lots of fluctuation
-high tide mores wedge further in towards shore -also affected by Coriolis effect -substrate --> most debri falls to bottom, problems with oxygen concentration at bottom -snails, polychaetes, etc. dig down into sediment -temperature --> large changes mainly due to the amount of fresh water into estuary (summer = warm fresh water into sea water; winter = cold fresh water into estuary) -currents --> not much current or wave action -turbidity --> particles suspended in water -high turbidity in estuaries -dinoflagellates & blue green algae --> survive in low nitrogen areas |
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Organisms at Mouth of estuary
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-stenohaline marine organism
-cannot handle a wide fluctuation in the salt content of water |
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Organisms inland at estuary
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-stenohaline fresh water organisms
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stenohaline
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cannot handle a wide fluctuation in the salt content of water
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in between mouth and inland of estuary
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-euryhaline --> able to adapt to a wide range of salinities
-good osmoregulators -clams, oysters, crabs, shrimp -zooplankton -pseudododiaptoms, mesopodopsis, gammarus -striped bass reproduce in estuaries -lots of bacteria |
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Migratory species (estuaries)
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salmon & eels
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Not good osmoregulator
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move towards bottom where salinity is more constant
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estuary mudflats
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-dominated by diatoms
-lots of primary production in Europe -green algae (cladophora) --> indicates heavy organic material |
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Mouth of estuary
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seagrasses
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Bottom Dwellers
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-have sives to protect gills from debris
-aerenchyma -lots of suspension feeders (polychaete worms) -carnivores --> polychaetes, flounder, gastropods, birds (gulls, ducks, geese, etc.) |
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aerenchyma
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airy tissue found in roots of plants, which allows exchange of gases between the shoot and the root
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Salt Marshes
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-communities of emergent herbs, grasses, or low shrubs rooted in soil alternately inundated & drained by tidal action
-high evaporative rates -lots of smooth cordgrass (Halophytes --> grow in high salt soils) -dramatic changes in salinity, temp, etc. -levels --> spartina alterniflora to rush to terrestrial plants |
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Zonation (salt marsh)
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caused by salinity & height of water
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organisms (salt marsh)
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-bivalves
-birds (feed during day) -Bald Eagles on East coast |
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West Coast salt marsh organisms
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-spartina alterniflora (right on coastline)
-glassworts -Jeumea -spike grass -sea lavender |
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Highest productivity for salt marshes
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-most measurements taken from southern marshes
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halophytes
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plants that thrive in high salinity conditions (ex. cordgrass & glasswort)
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