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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Name the three germ layers and give examples of what results in each
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ectoderm (nerve tissue and skin), mesoderm( skeleton and muscle- this layer makes us human, endoderm (organs)
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Mesoderm lags behind in development.
Layers are separate at first but gradually merge. A detached retina is an example of reversion of two layers. |
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what is gestation
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period of time of preganncy - 38 weeks -- nine months
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fetal vs embryonic develpmen
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Embryonic growth is the initial stage of development- primarily controled by ggenetics
Fetal development is later stage and is primarily controlled by hormones, environemnt (smokin and damaged cilia). placenta. thus ovaries are no longer important during this stage. |
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Day 1
Day2-4 Day 7 Day 15 Day 16 Day 22 Week 5 Week 8-9 |
Day 1 -Fertilization
Day 2-4 Cell division Day 7 Embryo burrows into endometrium (HCG is released) Day 15 First missed period Day 16 Brain develops (first organ) Day 22 Beating heart Week 5 limb buds appear Week 8-9 Reproductive structures start to develop. |
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What parts grow much faster than the rest of the body
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head and brain
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why is glucose important? why do diabetic mothers have issues devlivering?
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Glucose is a major nutrient in the fetus. It entry is passive by facillited difusion.
Diabetic mothers have an excess of glucose so thier babies grow fast. Therefore if the babies are devlivered too early there is danger that the lungs arent developed. If it is delived too late, there may be problems getting the baby out |
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In diabetic pregnanct women? why is there litte gluconeiogenesis?
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Mother has excess glucose so there is no need for the baby to produce gluse. Insulin sensitivity increaes
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What are the factor that contribute to fetal growth?
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IGF, Epidermal Growth factor, THYROID HORMONE!
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Why don't newborns shiver?
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There is a surge in fat depositions and protein synthesis in the last trimester. Brown fat produces enery via metabolism. Bro
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Compare the rate of growth in a newborn to an adult.
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An infant growns much faster than an adult. Infacnts require 3x as much nutrients adults ( 2.3 g/kg vs .89 g/kg)
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What is HbF?
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The fetus has HbF as opposed to HbA in adults. The mother is in competition for O2 with the baby. The Placenta produces 2,3 DPG which lesses the attraction of O2 for HbA and does not affect HbF making HbF more attracted to O2
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What is Meconium?
What is meconium illeus? |
The first fecal movement. It is green and consist of BILE, SECRETIONS, GI CELLS.
Meconium ileus is early marker for cystic fibrosis |
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Describe Fetal urine
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Since the kidneys are non-functional until birth, an isotonic urin is produced that enters the amniotic fluid
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Organoensis?
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A embryonic stage during the first nine weeks that is senstive to structural abnormalities
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Why Cleft palates dangerous?
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Cleft palates are when the nasal and oral passages do not divide causing infants to have trouble sucking and breathing at the same time
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Spina bifida?
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This results in the the lack of spine and brain formation/ closure. Can result from folate and Vit 12 deficiency
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What is the period of stuctural sensitivity?
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First nine week
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What organs are the two biggest locations of fetal abnormality?
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Brain, then heart
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What are the causes of organ abnormalites?
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the main cause is unknown,
then multifactorial inheritance, chromosomal abnormailits, mutant genes, environmental agents |
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Discuss the formation of the brain and spine in the embryo.
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The brain start on the surface of the embryo and moves inside. the normal sequence is:
Neural plate->groove->fold->tube |
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what are somites? why are they important.
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tissues in the embryo that give rise to segmentation . in the embyro, limb buds grow out from the spine to the tip of your fingers therefore they drag the nerves from the origins of your spine to the tip of your fingers. They can be important in diagnosing problems with your spine
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Describe the Female genital duct
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Called Mullarian duct. Unlike male, EARLY embryonic development is NOT dependent on hormones because the XX already gentically defaults to female
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Discus the MEale genital ducts.
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Called mesoephric duct. The Y chromosome (SRY gene) produces TDF wich inhibits Mullerian duct formation. Interstitial cells produces testosterone and androstenedione which stimulate the Wolffian duct
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Describe the desecent of the testes
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Each testes is attached to a scrotal swelling by a gubernaculum. The gubernaculum does not pull testes down. Everything else grows away from it
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What is an inguinal hernia?
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The protusion of abdominal cavity contents through the inguinal canal
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Explain Fetal Circulation
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The Placenta serves as the site of Co2 and Ox exchange. Blood travels up the unbilical ven to the liver ( but the liver isnt really functioning). Blood is then pump to the heart where there are two bypass of the lung ( since the lung is filled with water)-- 1) across the aria: foramen ovale and 2) blood in the right ventricle: ductus arterisus.
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What is the foraman ovale?
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Fetal bypass across the atria. Ensures that no blood is pumped to the lung ( no blood in superior vena cava). It is a thin membrane that is enought to separate right and left sides after birth. Open before birth. If it is"patent" this means that closure is open after birth
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what is the Ductus arteriosus?
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It is a fetal bypass across the right ventricle that ensures blood doesn't get to the lung. during fetal development it is a duct that alows blood to enter the aorta bypassing the left pulmonary artery. Once the baby is born it heals over.
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Describe Fetal Lung development
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At 24 weeks respiratoru epithelium thins and comes in contact with capillary netwokrs, (Alveolar cells type II) SURFACTANT IS PRODUCED!!
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What is surfactant?
Why is it important |
AKA DPPC lowers the surface tension in the alveoli. The surfactancts are produced by the alveolar ducts. It is stimulated by rising Cortisol levels in the third trimester
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Surfactant is important because in the alveolus there is a tension that pulls it in. DPPA or surfactant reduces this tension so expansion can occur. This means that babys born before this is produced will have respiratory problems
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Discuss the baby's first breath?
Why is the first breath important for blood circulation? |
The lung is filled with water (not collapse) before the first breath. This water must be expelled before this can happen.
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The first breath is important to blood circulation because it creates a "low resistance" system. It takes great enery to pump Blood during the first breath because of the water that is in the alveoli. Once the water has been replaced with air, blood can more easily circulate
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What are three descriptors of the baby when it first is delivered?
How do these descriptors help it survive? |
Hypoxic,
hypercapnea (high CO2) acidosis |
These all stimulated the respitory center and help it to breath
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Why is an initial cold enviroment and the stress of child birth good for the baby?
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Both factors help to stimulate Epi release which increas blood presure
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Describe functional capacity as it pertains to the fetus.
What factors help to eliminate fetal fluid after birth? |
The dead air space in the fetus is acutally filled with fluid that must be expelled after birth.
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Catacholamines and ADH help to pull out excess fluide
Increased Cardic Output Lymphatics and Compression help to dry out blood by pulling out extra fluid. It contains one-third of the blood supply. |
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What is the role of the placenta? Correlate it to stuctures in humans
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It is like:
The Lungs- O2 and CO2 exchanger GI Tract- deliversNutrients Liver- handles nutrients and waste Kidney- maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, waste. |
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Whate are 3 neonate challanges?
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Respiratory, Cardiac Output and metabolism are twice that of an adult (need lots of enery.
Fluid intake is 7 times as high as an adult ( the need lots of water) They may have a large SA to Volume ration (lots of heat loss- this is why premies are kept in incubators) |
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Describe Cardiac output in new borns?
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1/3 of the fetal blood is in the placenta so the baby is held below the birth canal to use gravity to bring this blood back to the baby. this will increase Cardiac Output b/c CO= HR*SV.
The stree of birth release catacholamines which increase metabolic rate. the abovve two effects double CO |
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What does Cortisol do in the fetus?
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It is the anti- insulin so it causes the release of glucose and stimulates the liver into glycogenlysis to increase glucose. it also causes the accumulation of glycogen
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What happens to the fetus in diabetic mothers? how does this counteract the effect of glucosse?
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excessive glucose overstimulated the fetal pancreas causing the fetus to be hypoglycemic for a short periodafter birth
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How much of body weigt is fat metabolism?
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15%
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How much of the baby's metabolism account for the break down of brown fat?
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50%
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Discuss the newborn's kidney?
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Fetus has 15-20% more water than an adult. It takes a year for the kidney to be mature. During this time, the infact produces very dilute urine since the kidney is not fully functioning. (450 mOs). Since the kidney cant concentrate the urine 7X more water than an adult needs to consumed by the fetus. Hence they are contantly urinating
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Discuss the mother's immunity
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the mothers immunity provide a pass for the first 3 moths of life until vaccince (measles diptheria and polio) can be provided. Breast Milk has IgA which is ideal for digestions
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What is the Penis?
What is the Scrotum? |
The penis is the delivery system for sperm
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The Scrotum is the sack that hold the testes
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Describe the testes. Ideal temp?
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Must descend through the inguinal cavity before functional. It is suspended outside the body to keep temp below 36 C. Constits of seminiferous tubulues
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Where is testosterone produced?
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In the testes primarily BUT also in the ADRENALS
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Describe The testes structure. How do sperm grow?
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The testes consist of a 800 ft tube (Donut hole) that is coiled together. Ledig cells lay in between tubes
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SPerm tart at the edge of the "donut hole" and grow inward (the center) to be released inside the tube
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Seminiferous tubles
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This are the tubules that are coiled together in the testes where sperm (spermatazoa) are produced. they begin at the edge of the tubule and grow inward
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Seminiferous tubles
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This are the tubules that are coiled together in the testes where sperm (spermatazoa) are produced. they begin at the edge of the tubule and grow inward
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Seminiferous tubles
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This are the tubules that are coiled together in the testes where sperm (spermatazoa) are produced. they begin at the edge of the tubule and grow inward
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What is a spermatagoinum?
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This is an undifferentiated primorial germ cell (diploid). It grows from the basal layer of the semiferous tuble
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Sertoli cells
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These cell provide crucial structure, signals, and nutrients to the sperm as the develop from spermatagonium to a spermatozoan. SEcretes substances too
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Leydig cells
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Cell on the outside of the seminiferous tubule that produce testosterone.
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Which cell produces testosterone and what produces spermatagonium?
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LEydig cells produce testosterone
Seminiferous tubules produce sperm. Do not confuse!! |
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What are the stages of sperm beginning with the basal layer?
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Spermatagonium--> Primary Spermacyte--> secondary spermacyte--> spermatid--> differentiating spermatid--> spermatazoa in lumen
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Where is the place an cancer drug is most likely to act in the male reproductive system? why?
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There is rapid division in the basal layer of the semiferous tubules produsing spermatagonium. Since an anti cancer drug targets cell division it would probably act here.
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Discuss the blood-testes barrier
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Drugs must cross the basel lamina AND the sertoli cells to get to the inner semiferous tuble and. So this is an isolated compartment- much like the brain-blood barrier
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NAme functions of the sertoli cells
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1) blood-testes barrier
2) Nourish sperm 3)phagocytic function-- destroy defective germ cells 4) secrete semiferous tubule fluid 5) secrete androgen bind protein- to transport testosterone across blood-testes barrier 6)Secrete inhibin and activin to regulate FSH secretion ( FSH controls how much testosterone is released |
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what is spermatogenesis? where does it occur?
How long does it take to occur? |
This is the production of sperm cells it coccurs in the context of the sertoli cells. IT takes 74 days for sperm to be produced so it would day 3 months for a drug to have an effect
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In spermatogenesis, where to mitotic inhibitors act?
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Mitotic deals with diploid cells so these inbitor at early in the process at the basal layer when spermatgonium is produced (diploid)
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In spermatogenesis where to meiotic inhibitors act?
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The inhibitors act on haploid cells so they act when primary spermacytes (diploid) divide into secondary spermacytes (haploid) via meiosis
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What are the three steps of spermatogenesis ?
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mitosis, meisosis, and packing
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Describe the changes that occur during spermatogenisis
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Haploid cell changes shape from round to elongated. There is a loss of cytoplasm. golgi appratus becomes acrosime. organize microtubules for motility. and segregate mitochondria for energy
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What is spermiation? Describe the process.
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Spermiation is the release of sperm into the tubular lumen. the loss of cytoplasm occurs here and there is detachment of the gobule before it is release. Thus gobulessperm attached to can be a sign of defects in the spermiation stage
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Head of the Acrosome
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IT is made in the golgi apparatus and contains specialized lysosomes built for penetrating the layers of the ova. IT covers the anterios 1/3 of the mature sperm
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Function of the LEydig cell
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When sperm is released from the semifereous vesicle it is IMMOBILE, testosterone from the leydig cells helps to jump start it.
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what is 5 alpha reductase? why is it important?
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This enzyme converts free testosterone to DHT
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DHT is important because it has similar effects to testosterone and adds to testosterone's effectiveness
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Why is DHT bad?
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Over stimulation by DHT later in life of the prostate gland can lead to hypertrogy and prostate cancer. DHT also causes hair loss in older men by shinking the follicle. So DHT is good early in life and bad later in life
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What are drugs that act on 5- alpha reductase?
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Proscar- used to treat prostate hyperplasia
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What are drugs that act on 5- alpha reductase?
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Proscar- used to treat prostate hyperplasia
Propecia- used to treat baldness |
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Name the major hormones controlling testes function
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GnRH, FSH, LH all regulate testosterone
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The effects of testosterone are not seen later in life. Is this because testosterone decreases? explain
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Not really. Testosterone does decrease with age but not by a lot. SHBG on the other hand increase tremendoesly. So more and more testosperone is becoming inactive due to being bound up in the SE-hormone binding globulin
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What does lack of testosterone lead to as men age?
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Sexual dyfunction
Muscle wasting a weakness Osteopenia Increased fat-lean body mass ration Increased hip and vertebral fractures Decreased hematopoiesis Memory loss |
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in what frequency is testosterone best administered?
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In pulses and NOT stead
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What two functions does testosterone therapy not help
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Adipose mass and Erectile disfunction
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What are some side effects of testosterone replacement therapy?
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increased prostate growth/ prostate cancer
Fluid retention Sleep apnea Gynecomastia Polycythemia ( increased RBCs) |
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what is the primary function of the epididymis? What does it do to the sperm
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To make sperm more capable of fertilizing.
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the sperm increases in motility potential
The plasma membrane matures ( becomes more condenseD) via absorption og glycoproteins there is an increased ability to adhere to the zona pellicida of the oocyte Increase (-) charged this helps recognistion of eggg and sperm |
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ductus deferens
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aja vas deferens- rapid transport of sperm during ejaculation and slow transport and removal of excess sperm during sexual rest . Vasectomies take plave here
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Seminal Vesicle
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the gland that contributes 60% supply fructose (energy to the sperm. protaglandin secretions to simulate motility. and precursur to semen clotting.
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Prostate Gland
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30% this gland secretes alkaline fluid to neutralize the vaginal fluids-- changes pH of semen
and proteases that break down the secretions and liquify coagulum after ejaculation |
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Bulbourethral gland
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secrete mucus for lubrication
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What is the connection between the seminal vesicle and the prostate gland.
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while the seminal vesicle secretes the precursors that will assist in forming a coagulant resevoir the prostate gland secretes proteases that break it down so it can be slowly released. So they work together
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What is the diffrence between emission and ejaculation
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Emission drives the sperm through the vas deferens based on sympathetic and parasympatheic events causing peristalic waves. Ejaculation is the complete removal of this contents based on local urethral contents. So There can be enjaculation but no emmision.
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What is the central artery that provides blood during an erection?
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Corpora CAvernosa- it has two dorsal colums surrounded by vascular network. It is assisted by the Corpus spongiosum. Both tissues have the posibility of engorgement. IT DILATEs during erection to become engorged with blood
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How does PDE5 act? what is it?
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Think Viagra! Since decreased CAlcium concentration cause relaxation PDE5 inhibitors stop this and keep Ca concentration high
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What drugs commonly interact with with PDE5?
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Nitrates and alpha-blockers
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What cytochrome metabolizes PDE5 inhibitors?
What drugs cause decrease clearence of PDE5 because they inhibit this enzyme |
P450---CYP3A4
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erythromycin
ketoconazole itraconazole ritonavir |
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After the sperm leaves the seminiferous tubules, what is its path?
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Seminiferous tubules->epididymis-_vas derens--urethra
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Why is the fetal gonad said to have bipotential?
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Yes it can either develop male or female. IT starts off similar and proceeds to differintiate but the proper signaling is required
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When does sex determination of the fetus occur? What hormone determines this What happens if the hormone isnot present?
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Occurs in the first nine weeks
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TDF (Testicular determining Factor ). If the hormone is not prent during the first nine weeks then ovaries will form
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When does testicular development occur.?
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AS early as nine weeks
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when are the sertoli cells and leydig cells produced during fetal development?
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day 60
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what is produced during fetal development (after TDF) to ensure appropriate development of of testes and accessory organs? What cells produce each hormone
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Testosterone and Antimullerian Factor (AMF)
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sertoli cells produce AMF and leydig cells produce testosterone
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When does the descent of the testes occur?
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the descent of the testes occurs during the last two thirds of gestation
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What causes unclear development of male and female genitalia?
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Inappropriate presences or absence of necessary signals during development
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When is gender identity established?
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18-24 months of age
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What is prenatal androgen resistance?
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This is when testosterone is present but testosterone receptors are not being stimulated causing effiminate behavior in males.
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What is 5-alpha reductase deficiency?
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This is a deficiency where males aren't producing enough testosterone and present as females. This can dramatically switch during puberty ( testes begin to secrete testosterone) causing a switch in gender role -- male to female
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what is klinefelter syndrome?
How is it treated? |
The seminiferous tubules shrink due to the improper secretion of testosterone due to the leydig cells. The testes can shrink to pea size because there is no testosterone promoting testes and body growth
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GnRH pulses are given to deficient patients to "crank system in gear"
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How are problems with the reproductive system monitored?
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Secondary Sex Characteristics are the least invasive way to monitor problems with the repoductive system. the characteristics of puberty can be a telling sign of issue
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What is precocity? what might cause isit ?
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sexual development (puberty) before ate of 9 years.
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Precocity can be caused by a tumor on the CNS?
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When does puberty usually occur?
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By age 14.
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What can cause delayed puberty?
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Hypothyroidism. Thyroidism can influence puberty too.
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What is 21 hydroxylase? Why is it important?
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this is an enyzme in the aderneals that converts steroid precursors to corticosteroids and aldosterone.
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If there is a definceincy in this enzyme there is excessive testosterone produced since the precursors arent diverted to corticosteroids and aldosterone. This will cause an eraly onset to puberty.
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What is 17 lyase deficiency?
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A metabolic disorder. This is the inability to convert C21 steroids to C19 gonadal steroids leads to ambiguous gentalia ( small penis in boys)
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What is androgen resistance?
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This is a metabolic disorder that is the lack of androgen resistance. IT leads to female appearance during childhood in males but not menses or pubic hair. Tests are formed but over developed
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What is the connection between diabetes and the male reproductive system
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Diabetes mellitus can lead to impotency
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What is cryptorchidism?
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This is undescended testes. Can lead to sterility ( too close to the body heat) and testicular cancer
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What is priapisim
balanitis hypospadias peyronies disease |
priapism= erection that can't be stopped and leads to infection
balanitis= infection of the outer skin of the penis Hypospadias= urethra not properly formed on peyronies disease= connective tissue formation |
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what causes peyronies disease?
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inappropriate development of the corpora cavernosa (spongy tissue)
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What is Variococele?
Spermatocele? Hydrocele? Testicular torsion? |
What is Variococele?= like varicose veins. retrograde flow of blood into the internal spermatic vein ( the vein swells and becomes engourge)
Spermatocele? a break in the semiferous tubules Hydrocele?- a large body of water that becomes encapsulated and begins to grow testicular torsion- testicles in scrotal sac are rotated/twisted and vas deferens wraps around vasculature- cuts circulation off. Testicular torsion? |
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