Macronutrients Exam 2

Front 1

the breaking down into its nutrient components

Back 1

digestion

Front 2

digestion of CHO

Back 2

monosaccharide

Front 3

digestion of lipid

Back 3

fatty acids & glycerol

Front 4

digestion of PRO

Back 4

amino acids & small peptides (di- & tri- peptides)

Front 5

the transporting of nutrients from the lumen into the bloodstream

Back 5

absorption

Front 6

using the end products of digestion for energy or to form other compounds

all the chemical reactions happening in the cell

Back 6

metabolism

Front 7

building bigger molecules from smaller compounds

requires input of energy

Back 7

anabolic metabolism

Front 8

break down of bigger molecules to smaller compounds

releases energy

Back 8

catabolic metabolism

Front 9

CHO Energy Yielding

Back 9

4 kcal/g

Front 10

Lipid Energy Yielding

Back 10

9 kcal/g

Front 11

PRO Energy Yielding

Back 11

4 kcal/g

Front 12

unit of energy

Back 12

calorie (cal)

Front 13

1 kcal

Back 13

1000 cal

Front 14

1 cal or 1 kcal

Back 14

4.18 J or 4.18 kJ

Front 15

the potential energy released in the chemical bonds of nutrients if the molecules undergo oxidation

complete oxidation of organic molecules = E, CO2 & H2O

Back 15

Free E (G)

Front 16

E =

Back 16

heat (60%) & chemical E or ATP (40%)

Front 17

∆Greaction=

Back 17

Gproducts - Greactants

Front 18

gives off (releases) E
"downhill"
favored
∆G is negative (-)
Gproducts < Greactants

Back 18

EXOthermic reaction

Front 19

requires E (energy must be supplied)
"uphill"
∆Greaction is positive (+)
Gproducts > Greactants

Back 19

ENDOthermic reaction

Front 20

E that must be imposed on the system to raise the reactants to their transition state

E is introduced into the reactant molecules to activate them to the transition state so that an EXO rx can take place

Moves the boulder up the hill to a point that it can "fall" down the hill

Back 20

Activation E

Front 21

an enzymatic rx in which oxygen is added to, or hydrogen and its e- are removed from the reactant

Back 21

oxidation

Front 22

a higher E level or barrier at which exothermic conversion to products takes place

E level at which reactant molecules have been activated and can undergo an exothermic rx

Back 22

transition state

Front 23

cell derives its E from a series of chemical rx

nutrients oxidized to CO2 & H20

rx are catalyzed by "specific" enzymes

Back 23

cellular E

Front 24

major storage form of E is

Back 24

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Front 25

E is contained in the... bond

once the bond is broken, E is released

∆G = -7.3 kcal.mole

Back 25

phosphate bonds

Front 26

What are the E-requiring processes that all use ATP (40%)?

Back 26

-Muscular contraction (mechanical work0
-Biosynthesis Anabolism (chemical work)
-Active transport (osmotic work)
-HCl production

Front 27

hydrolysis (breakdown) of phosphate anhydride bonds releases

Back 27

stored chemical E

Front 28

an energy reservoir and link between E-releasing and E-demanding chemical rx in the cell

Back 28

ATP

Front 29

products of hydrolysis of ATP are

Back 29

ADP & Pi (inorganic phosphate)

(& high E)

Front 30

What do phosphocreatine (PCr) and other high E phosphate bonds do

Back 30

They have a higher E phosphate than ATP so they donate a phosphate to ADP in order to form ATP

Front 31

central (middle) position on E scale - intermediate carrier of phosphate groups

-can be a donor & acceptor of phosphate groups

Back 31

ATP

Front 32

2 mechanisms by which ATP is produced in the cell

Back 32

1. substrate-level phosphorylation

2. oxidative phosphorylation

Front 33

generates ATP by transferring a high-E phosphate group from an intermediate phosphorylated metabolic compound (a substrate) directly to ADP

-occurs in cytosol

Back 33

substrate-level phosphorylation

Front 34

-major means of ATP production
-catalyzed by enzyme ATPase
-removes e- from organic compounds and passes then through a series of e- acceptors, called ETC, to molecules of oxygen (O2).
-occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) of cells
-also, the phosphorylation of ADP

Back 34

oxidative phosphorylation

Front 35

-occurs in the mitochondria
-it is the process by which NADH & FADH2 are oxidized and proton gradient (H+) is formed
-a series of oxidation-reduction rx
-transferring one e- to another until it is accepted by oxygen (an e- acceptor), which then reduces to H2O
-uptake of oxygen from respiration

Back 35

respiratory chain AKA electron transport chain (ETC)

Front 36

-produces E in the form of transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient E
-E produced from this
-40% for ATP synthesis
-60% as heat for body temp maintenance
-a small percent of e- are leaked out of the mito to oxygen forming toxic free radicals

Back 36

ETC

Front 37

first step in release of E from CHO & fat

Back 37

oxidation

Front 38

remove H and e- from nutrient metabolites important in E transformation & produces NADH and FADH2, which is produced by glycolysis & Kreb's cycle

Back 38

Dehydrogenase Rx

-dehydrogenases

Front 39

ETC is compartmentalized into...

Back 39

4 different complexes

Front 40

ATP produced is within the Mito. and then most exits for rx in the cytoplasm: T or F

Back 40

True

Front 41

Starting Material: NADH
Final Acceptor: Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
-Has enough E to translocate H+ from the IMM matrix to the IMS to generate ATP
-Main source of e- leakage to generate free radicals
-Fe-S centers

Back 41

Complex 1 (of ETC)

Front 42

NADH + H+ oxidized to NAD+ reducing FMN to FMNH2 to Fe-S cluster to CoQ

Back 42

Complex 1 (of ETC)

Front 43

Lipid Soluble
-a molecule that diffuses within the lipid bilayer
-synthesized in the body
-supplement & Statin* for lowering cholesterol

Back 43

Coenzyme Q (CoQ)

Front 44

Starting Material: FADH2
Final Acceptor: CoQ (lipid soluble)
-does NOT contain enough E to translocate H+
-Fe-S center

Back 44

Complex 2 (of ETC)

Front 45

Starting Material: CoQ (lipid soluble)
Final Acceptor: Cytochrome C
-produces enough E to translocate H+ out of matrix (IMM) to IMS to produce ATP
-e- leakage to generate free radicals
-Fe-S center

Back 45

Complex 3 (of ETC)

Front 46

H2O soluble
-e- carrier on the outer membrane surface

Back 46

Cytochrome C

Front 47

Starting Material: cytochrome c
Final Acceptor: oxygen to for water (H2O)
-produces H2O & oxygen comes from respiration
-e- leakage generates free radicals
-produces enough E to translocate H+ from IMM to IMS for ATP production
-Copper ions and Fe-S center

Back 47

Complex 4 (of ETC)

Front 48

is the process of making ATP by using the proton gradient generated by the ETC
-H+ released from complexes into IMS powers ATP synthase to produce ATP
-KEY STEP IN ATP PRODUCTION

Back 48

Coupling with Oxidative Phosphorylation

Front 49

the precise mechanism by which E from ETC is used to synthesize ATP in the transfer of protons (H+) from the matrix into the IMS, powering the production of ATP

Back 49

Chemiosmotic Theory

Front 50

-uses the proton gradient E for ATP synthesis
-large transmembrane PRO complex
-Fo (stalk): has proton channel which spans the membrane and allows the transfer of protons
-integral PRO
-F1 (knob): ATP synthesizing subunit

Back 50

ATP Synthase

Front 51

chemicals that can block e- transfer through specific complexes in the ETC

↓ ATP production
↓ Proton (H+) gradient

Back 51

ETC Inhibitors

Front 52

It does not block the complexes of the ETC, but it does not produce ATP because it allows the transport of H+ back into the IMM matrix, but not through ATP synthase.
-generates heat

Back 52

Uncouplers

Front 53

An uncoupling agent PRO in the IMM of brown adipose tissue
-H+ is going through PRO and not ATP synthase, which generates heat

Back 53

Thermogenin

Front 54

large numbers of mito. and cytochromes

Back 54

brown fat

Front 55

Salicylic acid-metabolite of aspirin
2,4-Dinitrophenol-used as weight loss drug
Thyroxine-mild; hormone in thyroid gland

Back 55

Uncoupling Agent

Front 56

MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactacidosis and stroke) & Fatal infantile mitochondrial myopathy and renal dysfunction

Back 56

Genetic conditions or inherited disorders of the ETC

Front 57

maternally inherited condition due to complex 1 (NADH) or cytochrome c oxidase deficiency

Back 57

MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactacidosis and stroke)

Front 58

diminution or absence of most oxidoreductases of the ETC

Back 58

Fatal infantile mitochondrial myopathy and renal dysfunction

Front 59

it is the major source of E, supplying 50% or more of the total caloric intake

Back 59

Carbohydrates

Front 60

polysaccharides (starches & dextrin) 50%
&
simple sugars (sucrose, lactose) (lesser extent: maltose, galactose, fructose) 50%

Back 60

dietary CHO

Front 61

what are the functional groups of CHO

Back 61

polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones

Front 62

What types of CHO are simple?

Back 62

Monosaccharides & Disaccharides

Front 63

What type of CHO are complex?

Back 63

Oligosaccharides & Polysaccharides

Front 64

1 sugar unit that include glucose, galactose & fructose

Back 64

monosaccharide

Front 65

2 sugar units that include lactose, sucrose, and maltose

Back 65

disaccharide

Front 66

3 to 10 sugar units that include raffinose etc..

Back 66

oligosaccharide

Front 67

> 10 sugar units that include starch, glycogen, and cellulose

Back 67

polysaccharide

Front 68

-simple sugar or unit
-simplest form of CHO
-cannot be reduced in size to smaller CHO units by hydrolysis
-not commonly present in the diet in significant quantities

Back 68

monosaccharide

Front 69

most abundant monosaccharide & the most important in nutrition

Back 69

glucose

Front 70

3 to 7 carbon atoms
-trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses
-carbonyl group = aldose or ketose

Back 70

monosaccharide

Front 71

same chemical formula but have different characteristics
-they behave differently

Back 71

Isomers

Front 72

have FOUR different atoms or groups attached (not through a double bond though)

Back 72

chiral carbon

Front 73

optically active molecule (differ in the direction where the plane of polarized light rotates)

Back 73

molecular asymmetry

Front 74

to the right of the highest numbered chiral carbon

Back 74

dextrorotatory D

Front 75

the the left of the highest numbered chiral carbon

Back 75

levorotatory L

Front 76

D and L configuration based on structural analogy with a reference compound (the direction of the -OH bond on the chiral center)

Back 76

glyceraldehyde

Front 77

-OH points to the right

Back 77

D configuration

Front 78

-OH points to the left

Back 78

L configuration

Front 79

monosaccharides of D configuration are more important in nutrition - dietary CHO and metabolized in that form
True or False

Back 79

True

Front 80

enzymes involved in CHO digestion and metabolism react only with ? form and are inactive with the ? form

Back 80

react only with D form and are inactive with the L form

Front 81

-monosaccharides cyclize in solution
-carbonyl or aldehyde group (anomeric C) react with -OH, then the aldehyde or ketone attach (react with) to the highest numbered chiral carbon to form a

Back 81

ring structure

Front 82

hemiketal

Back 82

ketose

Front 83

hemiacetal

Back 83

aldose (ring structure)

Front 84

Once a ring is formed the carbonyl group carbon becomes an anomeric carbon because it reacted with the -OH group
T or F

Back 84

True

Front 85

the ring structure produces a new chiral center at the anomeric carbon
T or F

Back 85

True

Front 86

hydroxyl position to the right

Back 86

alpha form

Front 87

hydroxyl position to the left

Back 87

beta form

Front 88

in a solution, the alpha and the beta form exist in...

Back 88

equilibrium
-open and close to form equilibrium

Front 89

[ ] of beta form is roughly twice then the alpha form
T or F

Back 89

True

Front 90

alpha-amylase only hydrolyzes (breaks) alpha linkage (starches) but not beta linkage (cellulose)
T or F

Back 90

True

Front 91

Once in a ring is formed the -OH can either stay up or go down on the ring structure due to the different properties of monosaccharides

T or F

Back 91

True

Front 92

On a linear structure what do you look for to determine if the configuration is D or L?

Back 92

the highest chiral carbon

Front 93

On a ring structure what do you look for to determine if the structure is alpha or beta?

Back 93

the anomeric carbon

Front 94

5- or 6- membered ring are depicted as lying on a horizontal plane, with -OH group facing up or down

Back 94

Haworth Model

Front 95

anomeric carbon -OH directed to the right in open chain

Back 95

alpha -down in Haworth model

Front 96

anomeric carbon -OH directed to the left in open chain

Back 96

beta -up in Haworth model

Front 97

provide majority of dietary E

Back 97

hexose

Front 98

provide very little dietary E due to low content in diet
-structure (important within cell)
-readily synthesized within cell from hexose precursors
-incorporated into metabolically important compounds

Back 98

pentose

Front 99

occurs naturally in plants and other organisms
-reduced to hydroxyls by the addition of hydrogen
- reduction products of aldoses and ketoses to alcohol
-they are less reactive than sugars
-used as drying agent to prevent drying
-excessive amounts may cause diarrhea

Back 99

alditols (sugar alcohol)

Front 100

-D-sorbitol & xylitol are not easily metabolized by oral bacteria
-they are used in chewing gum and candies
-they are passively absorbed in the SI and metabolized in the liver

Back 100

alditols

Front 101

carbonyl changed/oxidized to an acid instead of an alcohol
carboxylic acid

Back 101

sugar acid

Front 102

removal of oxygen and replaced with hydrogen

Back 102

deoxy sugar

Front 103

adds an amino group (nitrogen)

Back 103

amino sugar

Front 104

2 monosaccharides attached by an acetal/glycosidic bond

Back 104

disaccharide

Front 105

major E-supplying nutrient
-furnish about 1.3 of total dietary CHO in an average diet

Back 105

sucrose (disaccharide)

Front 106

The anomeric hydroxyl group and a hydroxyl group of another sugar or some other compound can join together, splitting out water to form a glycosidic bond.
-alpha or beta (anomeric C)

Back 106

glycosidic bond

Front 107

glucose + glucose linked by an α 1,4 glycosidic bond (-OH down)
-reducing sugar
-found in malt beverages such as beer and malt liquors

Back 107

maltose (disaccharide)

Front 108

glucose + galactose linked together by a β 1-4 glycosidic bond (-OH up)
-reducing sugar
-found in milk and milk products

Back 108

lactose (disaccharide)

Front 109

fructose + glucose linked by an α 1-2 glycosidic bond (-OH down)
-non-reducing sugar (b/c no free anomeric C)

Back 109

sucrose (most widely distributed of the disaccharides)

Front 110

process of combining 2 monosaccharides together (anabolic -building)

Back 110

condensation (glycosidic bonds)

Front 111

have monosaccharide with anomeric C no involved in glycosidic bond

Back 111

reducing sugar

Front 112

anomeric C is involved in glycosidic bond

Back 112

Non-reducing sugar

Front 113

Why are disaccharides reducing or non-reducing? what is the significance?

Back 113

because they are reactive due to the presence of a reactive carbonyl

example is glucose in the urine which is a basis of a lot of tests

Front 114

3 to 10 sugar units
-are not abundant
-α-galactosides: raffinose, which form galactosidic bonds (because the sugars are galactose)
-humans do not have digestive α-galactosidase so it cannot be broken down or digested, so it is considered a fiber
-passes into the lower gut to be metabolized by bacteria
fermentation = flatulence
non-reducing sugar

Back 114

Oligosaccharides

Front 115

-made up of fructose units joined together
-produced by hydrolysis of inulin, which is used by some plants as a means of storing E
-used a bulking agent, emulsifiers, sugar substitutes, prebiotics (bc no bond to break g bond)

Back 115

Fructose Oligosaccharides

Front 116

-plant origin
-storage form of CHO in plants
-most common digestible polysaccharides in plants
-polymers of D-glucose meaning D-glucoses are connected together by a glycosidic bond
-two forms:
-amylose & amylopectin
-found in cereal grains, potatoes, legumes, other veggies

Back 116

Starch

Front 117

linear (straight chain), unbranched chain starch
-α 1-4 glycosidic bond
-15-20% in foods

Back 117

amylose

Front 118

branched chain polymer starch
α 1-4 glycosidic bond and α 1-6 glycosidic bond at branching point
80-85% in foods; > composition

Back 118

amylopectin

Front 119

single type of monomeric unit
-more abundant
-ex: glucose

Back 119

homopolysaccharides

Front 120

2 or more types of monosaccharides
-ex: glucose or galactose in long chains

Back 120

heteropolysaccharides

Front 121

storage form of CHO in humans and animals
-stored in liver and skeletal muscle
-highly branched polyglucose
-more branched than starch
-has α 1-4 and α1-6 glycosidic bonds

Back 121

glycogen

Front 122

-major component of plant cell walls
-homopolysaccharide of glucose
-beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds
-resistant to digestive enzymes α-amylase
-defined as dietary fiber because it is resistant to digestive enzymes so it does not provide E
-since the body cannot break it down, bc of beta form, it is a bulking agent, potential E source for intestinal bacteria

Back 122

cellulose